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Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

Introduction

Culture can be defined in relation to accounting procedures as the communal encoding of mind which differentiates a group of people from another. Culture puts into consideration factors such as the groups beliefs, morals, their background knowledge, the groups laws and customs, and any other abilities and habits that individuals from that particular society posses. Some of these cultural elements have been known to have a great influence on the labor circumstances of many organizations and business institutions.

Accounting procedures are structured set of handbook and programmed accounting techniques, systems and control methods that are introduced to collect, record, analyze, and present financial information to guide in decision making processes. Several theories have been used to illustrate the relationship and interconnections between cultural values and accounting procedures.

The theories can be categorized into two large groups which are economical and sociological approaches. Economical theories includes; principle agent theory, transaction cost theory and managerial accounting system design approach. Accounting systems may include; internal and external tax accounting and expense accounting procedures. Cultural behaviors have influenced the operations of businesses globally.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Problem Statement

Cultural values have not been completely embraced by many organizations in their financial and accounting systems. Business organizations need to incorporate important cultural values that will influence accounting procedures positively. Professionalism of individuals needs to be given priority when it comes to making decisions. Organizations have to create room for independent expert judgments by individuals with enough knowledge on the subject matter.

Their decision must be respected as long as they adhere to the set legislations that govern accounting procedures and at the same time the judgments they make should promote fairness to all workers ( Gregg, 2005). Cultural knowledge need to be used more in businesses since it provides valuable cultural information that can influence the making and implementation of more informed decisions.

Businesses will need to employ accounting secrecy and transparency to limit the disclosure of valuable financial information to competitors. Professional individuals must therefore create assurance for the security of any important financial information that may be used by competitors to their advantage. At the same time, transparency and accountability need to be practiced in the accounting and financing systems to avoid cases of a business losing money for individual gains.

Certain cultural beliefs and some set code of ethics promote transparency since they prohibit individuals from certain societal backgrounds from activities that may discredit them in providing financial results that lack accountability (Rand, 2006). Therefore, organizations need to employ workers with cultural values that promote accountability and transparency in the financial systems.

There is need for all businesses to ensure transparency and accountability in all its departments which can be achieved more efficiently by embracing set societal beliefs and morals. Both the managers and stakeholder should be in the forefront to in making sure that transparency and accountability is observed among all workers. They should be the role models to all other employees.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Organizations also need to employ conservatism which is one of the most ancient ways of valuing accounting procedures. The concept can be associated with uncertainty- avoidance aspect which tries to avoid the uncertain outcomes in the future. Conservative measures need to be taken that will help in the adapting of careful measures that will deal with uncertain results happening in the future.

A company that values its cultural conservatism highly is in most cases able to predict future outcomes thus avoiding occurrence of uncertain events in the future. An organization may opt for a lesser conservative theory to achieve consistency with short- term goals since the expected results are attained within their estimated time. Furthermore, this approach is more optimistic when adopted where the organization is trying to conserve its resources and investing these resources to achieve their long- term goals (Newing, 1995).

This is clearly shown when determining the total value of the business. In addition, the approach has tried to outline how various cultural values such as good behavior and customs can be used within an organization to facilitate good accounting and financial systems.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

Effect of cultural values and societal rule on accounting procedures

Written laws which can include societal rules need to be incorporated in the structural working of organizations to achieve uniformity in accounting and financial systems. Individualism is an aspect where culture has influenced both accounting and financial systems greatly, since it motivates individual performance towards realization of goals of an organization.

Further, this aspect has increased individual contribution towards the teams that runs various departments (Khan, 2002). Furthermore, an organization that chooses a more uniform financial and accounting theory, it is associated greatly with avoiding incidences of uncertainty. This has resulted to a lot of concern in matters pertaining laws and regulations which have forced these bodies to come up with strict code of ethics that monitors accounting and financial systems in any business organization.

These codes of ethics should go hand in hand with cultural morals that must be adhered to by all individuals. The organization also has role of ensuring that all set regulations of the firm must be followed to the letter without favors. For any business to be successful in the future consideration of individualism must be given more weight and priority since personnel’s with high cultural values will be more committed towards working with the sets regulations (Becker, 1991).

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Economic theories of organizations control, makes the assumption that the firm is a lawful body that is composed of the manufacturing procedures whose information is accessible by other organizations. Executives are responsible for choosing a certain manufacturing process and provide a suitable environment for maximization of the present and the future revenues. In addition, it is also the responsibility of the managers and stakeholders to offer all required material and financial resources and also equip employees with required skills by offering training courses (Anthony, 2001).

Economic theories that have been discussed to help managers in business operations include; the principle agent theory, the transaction cost theory and the management accounting system design. The three theories all focuses on profit maximization where executives, workers, stakeholders and accounting controllers works together to achieve the organizations common goal of increasing the firms total output.

Economic theories should always try to adapt to mechanisms that describes the organization. On the other hand, non- economic approaches need to work towards filling the existing gap and expound on the firms’ knowledge behavior (Mullins, 2002).

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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There has been concern on whether principal agent theory helps in understanding the concept of profit maximization by the management. The approach refers to a point where the owners of the business are interested in capitalizing on profit or are concerned in functions that add value to their enterprise. The theory is also referred to as principle agent problem, since senior staffs may exploit subordinate staffs by for instance, installing financial programs that these junior staffs do not have skills to operate.

On the other hand, managers, concentrates on exploiting the available resources that include their salary and money to maximize on profit which is the main functions of their business (Warren, 2005). As managers tries to maximize on profits, it results to an argument of concern on how managers should be controlled in the way they should run their commerce and at the same time do their best to capitalize on the state of ownership.

For example, managers must consult investors on a certain decision before implementing so as to get the approval of the stakeholders. This facilitates effective decision making and implementation, since there thorough research on matters of concern and enough consultation is conducted before making a conclusive and final decision ( Harrison, 2004).

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Despite managerial power system in relation to organizational activities not encouraging executives to express their open behavior, stakeholder do not have much information on managers day to day activities and the available information on profits. Ownership can therefore not force the management to work towards achieving the companies’ objectives by just highlighting the objective purpose. The solution to this is to design an efficient scheme that aligns the objectives of the stakeholder and those of the management (Whiting, 1986).

The scheme will tend to carry more weight on the objectives of the managers in comparison to those of the stakeholders. On the contrary, despite the approach trying to close on the gap within organizations, it faces a problem in that executive tend to utilize their power to enforce rules that may oppress the subordinates. For instance, the manager may authorize the purchase of an expensive machine for production to favor the seller while on the other hand; the manager is oppressing the subordinates who do not understand how to operate the machines.

It can be seen that the theory helps managers to maximize on profits as the management is given freedom to exploit resources at their disposal without stakeholders’ interruption. Further, the manager is given the mandate to set the rules and goals of an organization in order to maximize on profits (Bryan, 1999).

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Effect of social cultural factors on profit maximization

Social cultural factors also influence the extent to which are managers able to maximize on profits from signing the right contracts which are cheaper compared to their market price. According to the transaction cost theory, a firms’ existence is validated by the ability of the entrepreneur to agree on contracts at lower price than the market price which can be negotiated.

The number of contracts that can be negotiated within the firm is always less than the number outside. The contract should only state the power limits of the entrepreneurs and the details of the contract should only be defined after the two parties have agreed on all matters. Due to this, there is a possibility of the firm emerging in cases where short term agreements are not satisfactory.

Further, the approach would be seen as the expense incurred while trying to cater for goods by purchasing from the market instead of the organization providing from within. In addition, many organization tend to provide for their needs from within which allows the organization to save more on production cost, thus maximizing on the total income generated (Laffont, 2002).

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

According to this theory, the control of an organization is related to the control that the firm has over the marketing expenses. In addition, the theory claims that issues relating to organizations details play a vital role in defining the firms’ nature which is determined by the optimal production of available workers which is most likely promoted by the already existing inputs within the firm (Gebert, 2014).

In fact, resources with lesser value are priced at a lower cost since they can only generate products with lesser value, whereas, resources of high value are priced at a higher cost due to the high profit incomes that they generate. The approach faces a problem where, before managers undertake any transaction in the market, they have to know who are the willing seller/ buyer in order to initiate a bargain to get into contract and to conduct an inspection required to ascertain the validity o the contract.

The long processes involved in acquiring of industrial goods and services delays production by an organization since a lot of time is consumed/ lost between the time of identifying the needed resource and the time of acquiring the good. In addition, time may be also lost as the managers tries to fulfill legal procedures that are required for acquisition and installation of equipment (Flamholtz, 1996).

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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According to the theory, it can be seen that market prices determines the interactions between organizations. Furthermore, managers are responsible for making and implementing business set rules. For example, when a manager wants to purchase a machine that will be used in production department, he first of all consults an expert, then finds a willing seller, bargains, signs contract and finally makes the purchase (Chandler, 1992).

The approach involves three types of costs which are, “search and information cost “,”bargain and decision costs” and “policing and enforcement cost”. Without taking into consideration the transaction cost, managers will not understand well how the economic system work therefore making it hard to implement economic policies. The theory proves that managers are able to strike the right deals when they agree contracts before going to the market to strike at a market price.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

Effect of team work and organization culture on profit maximization

In the current business world, most organizations are using accounting and financial data in making critical decisions which in most cases is provided by management agents and controllers. The only question in this is whether the agents and the controllers have different perceptions with the managers on variable designs and the output quality (Chenhall, 2003).

Therefore, there is a need for the integration of the accounting controllers and the management involved in the decision making which would result in a consistent accounting language which benefits both the manager and the controllers.

The controllers do not seem to understand how vital their work relies on business success since they provide intangible and harmonizing information to the management. Therefore there exists a gap between the accounting controllers and the executives concerning on how to put into use the financial information. By providing information that promotes the growth of the organization, they improve their position as business consultants thus gaining highly influential positions within the enterprise.

On the other hand, managers must be transparent on the type of details they require and use while the controllers should not see themselves as specialists but instead be just like any other employee with the aim of realizing the organizations set targets (Sautet, 2000). Further, when both mangers and controllers agree to examine the policy that runs the business together, they tend to understand the matters concerning the social- economic factors m, thus leading to faster goal achievement of the organization within a short time.

In addition, managerial designs have assisted managers in maximizing on profits as decisions made by the two parties, when they work as a team, are implemented as agreed. When both the managers and the accounting controllers work together, it can be seen from the approach that there is quick goal achievement and higher profit maximization.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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The above three discussed approaches do interrelate as all are aimed at realizing the long term profit maximization of the firm. First, Principal Agent theory illustrate on a scheme that is aimed at having the management and the stakeholders aligning their objectives so as make and implement efficient decisions that will enhance overall productivity. Though the senior staffs have a higher hand of determining the best course since they understand better the business environment, they still need to consult the investors.

The transaction cost theory explains on how managers need to give priority to contracts that can be implemented at lower costs than the market price. The management there focuses on resources that can be acquired at a cheaper cost but at the end yield more products which can generate more incomes. Lastly, the managerial accounting system design like the other two approaches focuses on making decisions that are aimed at maximizing the firms’ profits (Radebaugh, 2005).

The theory tries to integrate the company’s management with the accounting controllers so as to enhance the making of more informed decisions that would increase the firms’ total revenue. The three theories therefore summarize the role of different firm organs and departments in the realization of the goals of an organization which are to increase the total income revenue.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Sociological theories of organizational control are approaches that try to describe managerial behavior by stressing on main affinity of teams. Sociologists do not concentrate more on understanding individuals’ psychology and how they interact with others but emphasize more on group interactions.

According to the theory, managerial control is executed by set laws, policies and the chain of command (Klewes, 2008). Further, the sociological approach has been described using several other theories that include; functionalism, general system theory approach, contingency theory and theory of bureaucracy.

The theory of functionalism is based on the hypothesis that the social world has a strong, genuine continuation, and an orderly trait oriented to come up with a structured and maintained state affairs. The theory has been applied in social sciences and how they relate to the business world. According to the approach, the organization can be approached in two dimensions; from an internal view and an external perspective.

The internal view distinguishes the managerial, the technical and the institutional level. The managerial section takes part in the administration section of the organization (Chenhall, 1990). The technical level focuses on the activities involving practical work. The institutional part has to make sure that the objectives of the company are at par with the social goals.

The second approach is the General system theory approach studies an organization as a program of parts interconnected to each other but each specialized to perform a specific task towards achieving the goals of the organization. Further, the theory explains the common principles and regulations that an organization operates under. The principles must be in agreement with the cultural norms of the involved communal groups.

In addition to this, environmental laws must also be adhered to regardless of the firms’ laws and regulations. The cultural values of the society will therefore play a bigger role on the organization during its making of financial and accounting decisions (Bryan, 1999).

Another approach that is used by sociologists is the contingency theory which argues that, individuals cannot be expected to just follow set gestures unless they can respond to own worth and interest. The theory therefore recognizes enabling factors that facilitates capacity building within the firm. Capacity building in an organization can be limited by business environmental factors which always need to be addressed so as to enhance business productivity.

Organizations variables have to match with environmental traits so as to ensure an excellent working condition (Klewes, 2008). In addition, the approach also shows that the most successful firms are connected with administrative practices which best matches environmental circumstances with the techniques used for production.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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The last approach is the theory of bureaucracy which is based on the official area of jurisdiction, the hierarchy of command, written agreement, training of the office management, the capacity of the employees and lastly the general rules by the management. In addition, the theory emphasizes on the rule of law which focuses on all formal structures of the firm. All employees have equal rights as does the consumers. All customers have to be provided with equal services regardless of their cultural beliefs, morals and the principles that monitor and maintain their behaviors (Radebaugh, 2005).

In conclusion, the impact of cultural values on accounting procedures can be seen clearly in the context. Various theories that include; principle agent theory, transaction cost theory and managerial accounting system design approach have all tried to explain the success of organizations based on how managers makes and implements decisions.

Further, sociological theories, such as, functionalism, general system theory approach, contingency theory and theory of bureaucracy have also been used by scholars to explain how cultural values influences financial systems in a business. Cultural values that influences these accounting procedures includes; cultural beliefs, morals, individual habits and the customs of the groups.

The above approaches have successfully been able to solve the gap that exists in many business organizations. Further, the study explains more on cultural behaviors which includes; professionalism, secrecy and transparency, conservatism and individualism. These concepts illustrates how cultural values affects the accounting systems and designs.

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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References

Gregg, G. S (2005). The Middle East. A cultural psychology. Oxford; Oxford University Press

Radebaugh, L. H., & Gray, S. J. (1997). International accounting and multinational enterprises. New York; John Wiley & sons.

Khan, A., & Hildreth, W. B. (2002). Burdget theory in the public sector. Westport, Conn: Quuorum Books.

Becker, R., & burmeister, E. (1991). Growth theory. Aldershot, Hants, England; E. Elgar.

McChail, K (2013). Accounting ethics

Rand, S, Kouris, H, & Apex Art ( Galley) (2006). On cultural influence Collection papers fro Apexart international conferences 1999-2006. New York Apexart

Laffont, J-J, & Martimort, D. (2002). The theory of incentives: The principal- agent model. Princenton, N. J: Princenton University Press

Chandler AD Jr (1992). Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the American industrial enterprise. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

Anthony, R. N., & Govindarajan, V. (2001). Management control systems. Boston

Marchant, K. A., (2012). Management control systems; Performance measurement, evaluation and incentives. Harlow, England

Chenhall R. (1990). Financial and accounting systems .Boston, MA; Auerbach

Gebert, K. (2014). Performance control in buyer- supplier- relationship; the design and use of formal management control systems. Wiesbaden; Springer Gabler.

Newing, R, & Ring, T. (1995). Financial and accounting systems. Chorleywood; Prime marketing.

Harrison, W. T, & Horngen, C. T. (2004). Financial accounting. Upper Saddle River, N J; Prentice Hall.

Chenhall, R.H,. (2003). Management control system design within its organizational context:

Warren, C. S, & Fess, P. E. (2005). Financial accounting. Mason, Ohio; Thomson/ South- Western.

Whiting, E. (1986). A guide to business performance measurement. London ; Macmillan.

Flamholtz, E. G. (1996). Effective organizational control. A framework, applications, and implications.

Sautet, Fa. E. (2000). An entrepreneurial theory of the firm. London; Routledge

Mullins, L. J. (2002). Management and organizational behavior. Harlow; Financial Times Prentice Hall.

Bryan, L. L. (1999). Race for the world. Strategies to build a greater global firm. Boston, Mass; Harvard Business School Press.

Klewes, J., & Langen, R. (2008). Beyond organizational transformation. Berlin; Springer

Influence of Culture on Accounting Procedures

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Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal

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Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal

Directions: Develop an educational Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal series proposal for your community using one of the following four topics:

Bioterrorism/Disaster
Environmental Issues
Primary Prevention/Health Promotion
Secondary Prevention/Screenings for a Vulnerable Population

Planning Before Teaching:

Name and Credentials of Teacher:
Estimated Time Teaching Will Last: 2 Hrs	Location of Teaching: Community Social Hall
Supplies, Material, Equipment Needed: Charts, projector, PowerPoint presentation, Safety gloves and equipments	Estimated Cost: $1,000
Community and Target Aggregate: 500 People
Topic: Primary Prevention/Health Promotion

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Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal

Epidemiological Rationale for Topic (statistics related to topic):

Primary prevention/Health promotion is important in the reduction of the impact of chronic or deadly diseases on an individual in the community, in institutions and at the society level. Initiatives that develop and undertake the implementation of prevention programs at the primary level have not been evaluated with key scientific rigor (Lobb et al., 2013).

Health promotion helps in building structures that are supportive that help in empowering personal resources by maintaining health in its broad sense. The selection of the target group is based on the degree to which they are affected and the feasibility of reaching them effectively plus chances of achieving a profound and effects that are sustainable.

Nursing Diagnosis: an actual diagnosis will help in indicating how the community faces challenges concerning primary prevention for example, the deprivation of sleep. Undertaking a risk diagnosis helps in obtaining views on vulnerable conditions and the contributing factor for example, risk for shock.

In health, promotion diagnoses judge about the motivation of the community to actualize human life and desires to increase wellbeing for example their readiness to enhanced nutrition. The diagnoses are clustered if they occur together and addressed through similar interventions for example, a relocation stress syndrome.

Readiness for Learning: Factors that would indicate the readiness to learn for the target group.

The patients are able and tend to be motivated to process the new skills through exploration of new attitudes and behaviors. Also, there is a willingness of the patient or persons to engage in the teaching-learning process that comprise of the emotional readiness. The persons are not generally aware of the problem but, they are ready to act (Ali & Katz 2015). They think about the change but they have not yet taken any action

Learning Theory to Be Utilized: Explain how the theory will be applied.

The most preferred theory for the learning population is cognitive learning theory. The primary prevention phenomena will be analyzed into simpler components and studying the basic components of health promotion. This helps the target group in understanding a complex health phenomenon easily. The persons can organize and transform into a pattern what is being taught. It offers the three intellectual systems of an enactive, iconic and symbolic image of the training.

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Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal

Goal: Using Healthy People 2020 (HPP2020) Objective

The objective of promoting the quality of life and healthy development plus healthy life behaviors across all the stages of life is important in my teaching. The importance is that the community can be able to get exposed to health promotion through primary prevention on practicing healthy life practices. This also serves in educating on healthy practices in life to ensure that there is an epidemic or disease free society.

Relationship between the HP2020 and Alma Ata’s Health for all Global Initiatives

Alma Ata’s health for all global initiative included health workers with an aim of training them as one team to help in responding to the expressed health needs of the community. It also develops the ability of communities to participate through education and concerns itself with community participation and inter-sectored actions to make effective the existence of vertical integration in dealing with disease burden and shortages of workforce. The objective of promoting quality of life relates to this objective because they mainly aim at improving the human life and existence (Rusch et al., 2015).

Develop Behavioral Objectives (Including Domains), Content, and Strategies/Methods:

Behavioral Objective and Domain	Content (be specific)	Strategies/Methods (label and describe) .
1. The learners will be able to construct treatment and preventive plans for diabetic patients to contain avoiding certain food (cognitive)	1. Avoid food that contains much sugar and continuously do body exercises to remain healthy	1. Present diagrams through the projector of specified and prescribed food to help in the primary prevention of diseases. Allow the learners to ask and present opinions on their varied diets
2. The learners will be able to demonstrate their commitment to promoting the presentation of the case by asking for feedback on the presentation (affective domain)	2. Ways of offering first aid in case of the affected patient or dealing with the desease	2. Practical presentation on the recovery positions and do a mock test to determine the learners’ ability to assist during critical occasions
3. The learners will be able to calibrate on using a first aid kit before performing the actual process of helping patients and undertaking primary prevention (psychomotor domain)	3. Ensure the first aid kit is well equipped with essential drugs that help in basic diseases that affect the community	3. Prescribe on drugs through demonstration that are essential in first aid and give access to the local medical centers within their locality by providing emergency assistance numbers
4. The learners will have to demonstrate on how to reduce the impacts and curb water pollution in their community (cognitive domain)	4. Put in measures such as, drinking clean and safe water	4. Practical presentations on basic healthy living such as, water treatment and ensuring hygiene when handling foodstuffs

Creativity: How was creativity applied in the teaching methods/strategies?

There was fluency, flexibility and uniqueness followed indicated by the following of the teaching instruments. Creativity was ensured through the involvement of the learners to give their views on the primary prevention (Ali & Katz 2015). Including the use of health models and use of past experiences brought in the concept of creativity. The various domains of the behavioral objectives greatly influenced the learner responses.

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Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal

Planned Evaluation of Objectives (Outcome Evaluation): Ways to measure each objective

In the cognitive objective of developing treatment and preventive plans will be measured through their readiness to help in orally presenting a new patient’s case

The learners will be able to orally present a case of a patient in a manner that is logical while observing chronology in the development of the current disease. (specific)

The learners can be able to prepare appropriate new patient workups (general)

The learners will be able to summarize the pertinent positive and negative findings while undertaking a differential diagnosis and plans for testing and treatment further (cognitive)

Planned Evaluation of Goal: Overall Effectiveness of the teaching plan.

Feedback can be collected from the learners concerning the clarity of the stated primary prevention or health promotion. Peer evaluation can also be undertaken through the teaching mutual or one way evaluation of teaching observation.

Planned Evaluation of Lesson and Teacher (Process Evaluation):

Evaluate on the things that went well in the learning process and why they went well. Evaluation is also done on the problems encountered and why. What could I have done differently? What I learned from the experience and how it could help me in future.

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Community Teaching Work Plan Proposal

Barriers: Potential Barriers during teaching

The learners might not have enough confidence in the teacher but this can be handled through the avoidance of prejudice and acting professionally. The learners could possibly lack motivation but explaining the terms broadly encourages them. Also, the learners could possibly lack attention or enough time. The teaching can be scheduled in hours when the learners are free to attend.

Communication: The presentation process from “Hook” to the end of the presentation and non-verbal techniques

The use of facial expressions and signs helps in stressing the concepts of primary prevention. The presentation can begin with question and answer sessions and end with flashbacks on the topic and presentation from some of the learners on their understanding of the presentation.

References

Lobb, R., Petermann, L., Manafo, E., Keen, D., & Kerner, J. (2013). Networking and knowledge exchange to promote the formation of transdisciplinary coalitions and levels of agreement among transdisciplinary peer reviewers. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 19(1), E9-E20.

Rusch, D., Frazier, S. L., & Atkins, M. (2015). Building capacity within community-based organizations: New directions for mental health promotion for Latino immigrant families in urban poverty. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(1), 1-5.

Ali, A., & Katz, D. L. (2015). Disease Prevention and Health Promotion: How Integrative Medicine Fits. American journal of preventive medicine, 49(5), S230-S240.

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Social Stigma of the Mentally Ill Essay

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Social Stigma of the Mentally Ill

Angermeyer, M. C., Holzinger, A., Carta, M. G. & Schomerus, G. (2011). Biogenetic explanations and public acceptance of mental illness: systematic review of population studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 199 (5); 367-372.

Aim; investigating if mental illness’ biogenetic causal attributions were linked to more tolerant attitudes in the general public, and if such attributions were connected to lower responsibility and guilt perceptions due to social stigma. There was also an exploration of the extent to which responsibility notions were linked to rejection of the mentally ill people. Finally, evaluating how prevalent responsibility notions were in the general public in relation to various mental disorders.

Research design; systematic review of population studies that were representative. There was an examination of the attitudes towards the mentally ill as well as the beliefs about the disorders.

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Key research findings/ recommendations; biogenetic causal models should cease being used to reduce rejection of the mentally ill. biogenetic causal attributions are not linked to attitudes that are more tolerant but are connected to stronger rejection (schizophrenia), social stigma. The self-responsibility stereotype was not connected to rejection. Mental disorder’s public images are more dominated by dangerousness and unpredictability stereotypes. Responsibility is minimally relevant.

Strengths and weaknesses; there was use of an adequate number of studies. However, there is no mention of what can be used instead of the biogenetic causal models.

Deacon, B. (2013). The biomedical model of mental disorder: A critical analysis of its validity, utility, and effects on psychotherapy research. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 846-861.
Aim; the study aimed at exploring the biopsychosocial model that is often neglected in studying mental disorders.

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Research design; a scientific approach was used to investigate the speculations.

Key research findings/ recommendations; in America, the healthcare system has been dominated by the biologically-focused strategy to practice, policy, and science for over three decades. Within this period, there has been a rise in the psychiatric medications use. Moreover, mental conditions have been more commonly seen as brain diseases that result from chemical imbalances which can be corrected using disease-specific drugs.

Regardless of the widespread hope in the neuroscience’s potential of revolutionizing mental health practice, evidence shows that the biomedical model broadly lacked clinical innovation. It was also characterized by mental health impacts that were very poor. The biomedical paradigm profoundly has affected clinical psychology through drug trial methodology adoption in psychotherapy research.

Regardless of the fact that that this approach has brought about the development of psychological treatments that are empirically supported for different mental diseases, it ignores the treatment process inhibits dissemination and treatment innovation, and resulted to the classification of this field along practitioner and scientist lines.

Strengths and weaknesses; noteworthy, the researchers recommend the biopsychosocial mode as the appealing biomedical approach’s alternative. In addition, there is advice on the need for a public and honest dialogue regarding the utility and validity of the common biomedical paradigm.

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Haslam, N. & Kvaale, E.P. (2015). Biogenetic Explanations of Mental Disorder: The Mixed-Blessings Model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(5), 399-404
Aim; exploring how the mentally ill people are perceived in relation to biogenetic explanations from the perspectives of clinicians, the affected, and public.

Research design; systematic review.

Key research findings/ recommendations; regardless of the fact that biogenetic explanations might soften public stigma through diminishing blame, they escalate it through inducing avoidance, pessimism as well as the belief that those affected are unpredictable and dangerous. Such explanations might also induce helplessness and pessimism among the affected people and minimizes the empathy the treating clinicians often feel for them.

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Strengths and weaknesses; it is recommendable for the authors to mention that they interpreted the findings in the light of the social psychology research in relation to mechanistic and essentialist thinking. However, a lot more studies need to be conducted so as to explain many aspects that this study does not touch on.

Pattyn, E., Verhaeghe, M., Sercu, C., & Bracke, P. (2013). Medicalizing versus psychologizing mental illness: what are the implications for help seeking and stigma? A general population study. Soc Psychiatr Psychiatr Epidimiol, 48, 1637-1645.

Aim; the aim of this study was contrasting mental illness’ medicalized conceptualization with the psychologizing mental illness. It also examined the consequences of sticking to one model as opposed to the other for social stigma and help seeking.

Research design

There was used of survey research approach. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in a representative sample that consisted of a general population from Belgium. The vignette technique was essential for depecting schizophrenia. Te disease view, labeling processes, and causal attributions were addressed. Data analysis was through linear and logistic regression models using SPSS Statistics 19.

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Key research findings/ recommendations; mental illness’ medicalization requires a package deal, that is, the disease view’s application to promote medical treatment recommendations, and biopsychosocial causal attributions. Labeling triggers stigmatizing attitudes. General medical care is recommended by those who prefer the biopsychosocial approach while specialized medical care is recommended by those who use the disease view.

In relation to informal help, those that use the biopsychosocial model rarely recommend consulting friends compared to those who prefer the psychosocial model. Those who use the medical label barely recommend self care. Those who use the medical model are likely to exclude others socially, especially those that have undergone through psychiatric treatment.

Strengths and weaknesses

There is a clear comparison between different model but the results are limited to the Belgians.

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Treating Addison’s Disease Essay

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Treating Addison’s Disease

Side effects of using corticosteroid to treat Addison’s disease

Patients diagnosed with Addison’s disease needs to take up their medication daily in order to replace the inadequate hormones. This normally helps the patients to live a normal life. Treatment mainly involves use of corticosteroids (steroid therapy) to replace hormones lost and those not produced by the aldosterone. Although these medications are effective, corticosteroids are associated with short term and long term side effects (Bentley, 2011)

The short-term side effects includes stomach upset, increased irritability, weight gain due to water retention, increased fat on the face, unusual hair growth , high blood pressure, and risk of other infections. The long-term side effects include muscle weakness, brittle bones, and stunted growth among the children. To minimize such side effects, people taking the drugs should be watched carefully and of necessary, their doses reduced as low doses can be effective and have minimal side effects (In Arieti, 2014).

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Factors that make it problematic for management Addison’s disease in adolescents

The process of diagnosing Adrenal insufficiency is usually a challenge. This is because most of clinical manifestation are nonspecific, and tend to vary according to the underlying causative agent and extent of disease progress. It is important to make early diagnosis as the disease can be life threatening if not diagnosed early enough. The signs and symptoms and management of the diseases are the main challenges faced by the adolescents diagnosed with Addison’s disease. These include issues such as fatigue, malaise, and general muscle weakness. This negatively impacts on quality of life and their daily activities (Helms, 2015).

Importance of inter-professional team for treatment of Addison disease

Team-work in management of Addison disease is important as it aids in improving patient quality of life, reduce mortality, improve communication, reduce errors, and increase patient satisfaction. In this case study, healthcare staff from the following disciplines should work together when delivering care to Addison’s patients. These include physicians, nurses, nutritionists, pharmacists, and physiotherapists. This will help in developing a detailed case related information, which facilitates the decision making processes (Bar, 2013).

References

Bar, R. S. (2013). Early diagnosis and treatment of endocrine disorders. Totowa, N.J: Humana Press.

Bentley, P. J. (2011). Endocrine pharmacology: Physiological basis and therapeutic applications. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press.

Helms, R. A. (2015). Textbook of therapeutics: Drug and disease management. Philadelphia,

Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

In Arieti, S. (2014). American handbook of psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.

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Low Paid Jobs: Positive or Negative?

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Low Paid Jobs: Positive or Negative?

Is the outsourcing of low paid jobs to the developing countries a strictly positive development for workers in that country?

Introduction

In the business industry, outsourcing of jobs is the contracting out of some business processes which belongs to an organization to other firms in the same business field. The term outsourcing comes from the early American way of referring to it as ‘outside resourcing.’ Outsourcing sometimes relates to the transfer of jobs and other assets to other firms, but this is however in rare cases.

In the government, outsourcing may apply to the handing over of public services to private organizations for profit organizations. Outsourcing of jobs may be domestic or international. Sometimes, a business may decide to shift all its services from one nation to another due to their strategic or personal reasons. This process is known as offshoring. The main objective and main advantage of offshoring are that the financial savings from that results due to the lower international labor rates are used to the advantage and motivation of offshoring (GLEWWE, 2014).

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Thesis statement

The outsourcing to the developing countries the low-paying jobs is strictly advantageous to the development and a clear way forward for the employees in those particular countries. Is it, however, true that the step is positive towards change or not?

Reasons for outsourcing of low-paid jobs

There are several reasons why the outsourcing of low-paid employees to the developing countries is important. One of the most important reason the low paid jobs should be outsourced to the developing countries is that there is plenty of cheap labor in those states. The high rates of unemployment in those countries when accompanied by the low levels of illiteracy, leads to the availability of cheap labor (BEST, 2011).

Also, another important reason for the outsourcing of the low paid jobs to the developing countries is that businesses will have the ability and the feasibility of concentrating on the other main sectors of the economy that are crucial business processes. It will lead to expertise and specialization within the major business processes. When the output is quality when the low-paid jobs are outsourced, it should be considered an important factor (DIDNER, 2015).

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Benefits

The outsourcing to the developing countries is positive and hence, come in handy with several benefits. One of the most significant benefits of the outsourcing is the cost advantage. When outsourced, jobs can be done faster and that are of quality and cheaper. Outsourcing also saves on the expense of infrastructure since once the jobs are outsourced to developing countries, all the processes will be catered for by the organizations in those countries.

The cost of technology in the production is also lowered since the outsourced jobs will take care of themselves. It helps reduce the job expense in the already developed countries since the same quality or even a higher quality can be provided at cheaper prices in the developing countries (GLEWWE, 2014).

When outsourced, business products are realized to be efficient, sometimes even more than when produced at the original place. Outsourcing brings about expertise in the production of goods and services. Specialization in a certain field brings in the years of experience in working, thus bringing in the skills and thus delivering quality goods and services.

Access to skilled resources is also another significant advantage since the developing countries have new skilled labor that will provide energy to the industries. It will hence cut off the costs of training and recruit expertise (BEST, 2011).

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Advantages

On the positive side, the outsourcing of the low paid jobs to the developing countries is of an advantage, both in the developing, the developed countries, and the workers in those countries. To the developing countries, there will be more chances of job employment and hence light at the end of the tunnel of unemployment. It will bring income to the developing world and hence reducing the unemployment rate and poverty. More products and services will have also been brought closer to the developing countries and hence no much spending on the importation of goods and services (DIDNER, 2015).

On the other hand, the developed countries will have numerous advantages when the low-paying jobs are shifted to the developing countries. When the low-paying jobs, are shifted, they enable the countries to deal with the most crucial employment and businesses that need more attention rather than the supporting or the secondary ones. Thus, outsourcing allows the developed countries to strengthen their core businesses and processes (BEST, 2011).

When the low-paying jobs are outsourced to the developing countries, a country can be able to streamline one’s business and hence a sense of business direction to the nation. It also makes an organization more flexible to change, and therefore, a significant advantage.

The process also reduces the congestion and neglecting of the jobs in the developed countries and hence more space for development in the job sector. Sharing up of business risks is also a major advantage in the outsourcing of employments. One may not be in a position to withstand all the risks incurred in business and thus getting rid of the low-paying jobs is a significant stake (NAYYAR, 2013).

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Why the low-paying job outsourcing is a negative approach

On the other hand, the outsourcing may be a gamble to a developed nation. It is because of the many disadvantages of the outsourcing process. One main problem of the job outsourcing is the leaking and exposure of the confidential data belonging to a country or a nation. Since the secrets of a nation are the secrets of a country, outsourcing may be a dangerous gamble to the secrets of that particular organization. Also, although outsourcing proves to cut costs, the same process of outsourcing may be expensive since it involves two countries and hence higher costs (DIDNER, 2015).

The management of jobs in a different country may be difficult, due to various reasons such as the various government policies and the business policies of those different countries. Also, the employees in an individual developing country may lack interest in the job required for them to carry out. It may be a critical issue for the host nation and hence a significant disadvantage to the developed countries (NAYYAR, 2013).

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Conclusion

Upon conclusion, the outsourcing of the low paying jobs to the developed countries is a positive step in both the developed country providing the employment and the developing countries being provided with the job benefit as a whole. However, there are also disadvantages in the low-paying job outsourcing since the developing countries may lack interest in the jobs, or other inconveniences incurred during the process. Every country has to find the right partner developing the country to deal with to foster an affirmative positive action.

References.

GLEWWE, P. (2014). Education policy in developing countries. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=577472.

ZARRELLA, D., & ZARRELLA, A. (2011). The Facebook marketing book. Beijing, O’Reilly. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=414846.

BRAGG, S. M. (2013). Outsourcing a guide to– selecting the correct business unit– negotiating the contract– maintaining control of the process. Hoboken, N.J., John Wiley. http://www.books24x7.com/marc.asp?bookid=13990.

SPARROW, E. (20013). Successful IT outsourcing: from choosing a provider to managing the project. London [u.a.], Springer.

BAFFOE-BONNIE, J., & KHAYUM, M. (20013). Contemporary economic issues in developing countries. Westport, Conn, Praeger.

PULIZZI, J. (2014). Epic content marketing: how to tell a different story, break through the clutter, and win more customers by marketing less.

BEST, G. A. (2011). 42 rules for outsourcing your call center best practices for outsourcing call center planning, operations and management. Cupertino, CA, Super Star Press. http://www.books24x7.com/marc.asp?bookid=45349.

NAYYAR, D. (2013). Catch up: developing countries in the world economy.

DIDNER, P. (2015). Global content marketing how to create great content, reach more customers, and build a worldwide marketing strategy that works. New York, McGraw-Hill Education. http://www.books24x7.com/marc.asp?bookid=72496.

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Symbolic Interactionism Essay Paper

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Symbolic Interactionism

Without doubt, the households and properties would be so valuable to the stakeholders in symbolic interactionism. One of the most important things is ensuring that the roads are constructed well so that people can be able to commute to different places. It would be necessary for those living in low places where water might flood to vacate but if they fail to do so, they might be forced to so as to save lives.

Properties such as vehicles should be parked on higher grounds and one should never drive through a flooded bridge. For the people to take an appropriate and quick action, it would be important to communicate about the dangers flood can pose including destroying crops, killing, and carrying away houses and vehicles. Communication would be through showing them pictures and videos of other places that were affected, and the tone used should be a serious one (Jary & Jary, 2006).

Disasters cause a lot of suffering to mainly the poor and at risk individuals. For example, during a tornado, people suffer psychologically, others die, are displaced, lose property, and get injuries among others. However, disasters make the stakeholders to collaborate, act, and think of long-term solutions.

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Structuralism argues that all things are made of components through which they can be studies (Jary & Jary, 2006). It relates to emergency management in that during an operation, all the systems or components present have to be considered for effectiveness. In the same way, all the stakeholders should do their part if there is to be success. Definitely, structuralism has a big role in public safety.

Communication theories and risk perception are related to emergency management in that different mode of communication should be used for success and people are likely to respond to risk based on how the perceive it. For example, sign language might be used during an emergency if the person being communicated to cannot hear what is being said.

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Basically, the post discusses more about communication theory. It has been highlighted that lack of proper communication during an emergency results to deaths. Therefore, for preparedness, stakeholders should ensure that there are adequate and proper plans including phones and preset messages.

References

Jary, D., & Jary J. (Eds.). (2006). Symbolic interactionism. In Collins Dictionary of Sociology. London, United Kingdom: Collins.

Jary, D., & Jary, J. (Eds.). (2006). Structuralism. In Collins Dictionary of Sociology. London, United Kingdom: Collins.

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Renewable and Non-renewable energy Sources

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Renewable and Non-renewable energy Sources

The nine major energy resources available in this nation are categorised into two main categories, renewable and non-renewable energy categories. The non-renewable categories include coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy. These resources are limited as they take a longer time before they become replenished. Renewable energy is abundant, cleaner as they have low carbon emissions but production of energy from these resources is quite expensive.

They include solar, water, biomass, geothermal and wind. Renewable sources was the man source of energy in the past e.g. wood was used for heating and cooking, water and wind was used for milling and transportation purposes. A hundred and fifty years later, a technology used to extract energy from fossil was discovered; which rapidly replaced the renewable sources of energy (Pérez-Barahona, 2010).

In my community, large portion of energy is fossil fuels. It is the largest primary energy consumption, which is followed by coal, natural gas and renewable energy. This is attributable to the fact that fossil energy is cheap and easy to use.

However, the main concern is that these energy resources are becoming depleted; and the prices are soaring at an alarming rate. Additionally, our endangered resources are being damaged to in search of more non-renewable energy resources. The rates at which these resources are being utilized have caused detrimental effects in our environment. In fact, non-renewable toxic gases released in the air are the main cause for global warming (Eia.gov, 2016).

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There is need to seek for alternative sources of energy to save the environment for the future generation. There is need to source for sustainable, clean and renewable sources of energy. The government must establish strategies that will help shift towards efficient renewable energies that will help stabilize our climate while simultaneously meeting the Nation’s power demands. I believe that we have the power, knowledge and the capacity to make great strides in renewable energy and to conserve our planet (Pérez-Barahona, 2010).

Resources

Eia.gov. (2016). U.S. Energy Facts – Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding Energy – Energy Information Administration. Eia.gov. Retrieved from http://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=us_energy_home

Perez-Barahona, A. (2010). Nonrenewable energy resources as input for physical capital accumulation: a new approach. Macroecon. Dynam., 15(01), 1-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1365100509090415

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Pollution Prevention and Water Conservation

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Pollution Prevention and Water Conservation

Water is a very essential commodity in life. It supports the life of human beings, plants and animals. Additionally, water is used in various processes in the world. All production processes are supported by water. As a result of the great importance of water in life, it is important to ensure water conservation and pollution prevention all the time. It is important to conserve water to ensure that it is always available and in a safe state.

For water conservation, everybody should play a part through planting of trees. According to Ehlers, and Krafft (2011), planting as many trees as possible plays a major role in water conservation. This is through preventing direct heat from the sun. Plantations are known to prevent water sources from being interfered with. Additionally, trees are known to play a major role in the formation of rain. Additionally, everybody should be able to try as much as possible to create water reservoirs within their environment.

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Prevention of water pollution should be made the responsibility of every individual in the world (Unesco, 2006). So that water may be kept free from pollution, there are actions that should be taken by all means. Ensuring that sewerage systems are well managed is one of the things that are likely to avoid water pollution. With proper sewerage systems, all waste will be driven to the desired disposal areas and not the water points.

Secondly, proper garbage disposal is also necessary in the prevention of water pollution. Additionally, everyone should ensure that chemical substances are not poured or drained into water points. Chemical substances should be disposed off as per the requirements of the control boards. This will ensure that no water is polluted by anyone using chemicals in one way or another. Furthermore, everyone should try as much as possible to come up with proper sanitation systems. This is a good way of ensuring that all refuse is managed properly thus avoiding water pollution.

References

Ehlers, E. &Krafft, T. (2011), Intergrated Management of Water Resources, Springer

Unesco (2006), water: a shared responsibility, Berghahn Books.

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Overhearing Conversations: Communication Ethics

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Overhearing Conversations: Communication Ethics

According to research, overhearing a one-sided conversation is more annoying than eavesdropping (Bianca 2011). It’s even more annoying because you cannot avoid overhearing the conversation. The loud talks about one’s private life or how they behaved in a party are annoying. While I was in a restaurant taking a quiet lunch, a woman across the table made a call that was quite inappropriate.

She seemed to have been talking to her husband about their vacation and talked to him as if she was alone in the restaurant. She was loud and as she gave details about the requirements for the vacation one couldn’t help but overhear. She talked the entire time I was in the restaurant and the fact that everyone else was quite made it impossible to overhear her.

Overhearing one side of a conversation becomes uncertain and unpredictable making one’s brain get drawn to it to fill the other parts even when someone was not eavesdropping. According to Bianca (2011), though cell phones are making people rude, it doesn’t have to be that way. Top three phone etiquettes include lowering the voice while making calls in public, not being personal when there are other people present, and not taking calls while a person is already engaged in a face to face conversation.

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Cell phones can be so distracting if not used in a proper manner. With everyone now owning a cell phone, one becomes a party to unwanted conversations often. Otherwise, cell phones don’t have to be a bridging gap between people.

To avoid distractions and annoying others, it is advisable to lower one’s voice while in public, avoiding private discussions if there are other people near, and asking for permission from people close if you have to take a call when having a face to face conversation with others.

References

Bianca Bosker (2011). Cell Phone Etiquette: 15 Rules to Follow. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/03/26/cell-phone-etiquette-15-r_n_514927.html

Wood, J.T (2014). Communication Mosaics: An Introduction to the Field of Communication. Published by Wordsworth, Cengage Learning.

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