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Milgram Experiment and Lord of the Flies

Milgram’s Experiment — Milgram Experiment

Milgram Experiment reveals that the majority of people are willing to obey an authority figure by following instructions to perform acts that conflict with their coincidence. Besides , the Lord of Flies is a real example of obeying authority. This is because the Lord of Flies shows that boys are willing to follow any chain of command. The connections show that there are less evil people than good. However, society acts as the foundation of a person’s wrongdoing or evil.

Milgram Experiment assessed people’s reaction told to give a painful electric shock, while in the Lord of Flies by William Golding readers are introduced to actors of evil and good. The study shows that despite many individuals being useful in the world, only a few are great.

The purpose of this study is to show how William Golding in the Lord of Flies connects with Milgram Experiment themes to demonstrate how people are willing to obey orders from an authority figure. The paper provides a clear analysis of the link between the Lord of Flies and Milgram Experiment and the implications it has on the modern day leadership style and how people are willing to obey a chain of command from an authority figure.

Milgram’s Experimet Theoretical Framework

Milgram Experiment was carried out to show how people obey authorities under all circumstances, especially people who instructed them to perform acts that conflict the coincidence of purposes. The purpose of Milgram Experiment was to give students electric shocks by separating them from the subject and establishing a tape recorder, which was integrated with electronic shocks. Therefore, if the answers were inaccurate, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner by an increasing voltage for each wrong answer, while for the correct answer, the teacher would go to the next word pair.

Milgram Experiment was in a controlled setting such that the learner could not attempt to quit the experiment, which led to the establishment of status and authority (Batson and Daniel, 2016,10). Milgram Experiment showed factors that affect obedience. For instance, the status of location showed that prestige of location increase obedience, while less personal responsibility increases obedience. Besides, individuals tend to obey others if they acknowledge their authority as legally based or/and morally right.

Thus, the uniformity of the authority figure can provide people with status as well as peer support or presence of others disobeying the authority figure decreases the obedience level. Milgram Experiment showed that proximity to authority plays a significant role in obedience as people can easily resist orders from authority if they are not nearby (Haslam and Stephen, 2017, 63).

In Milgram Experiment, the teacher does not know that the shocks are not real, and the student behind the participation is in the experiment working with Milgram. Besides, the learner is getting words pairs incorrect on purpose, making the experiment fake despite showing the importance of obeying authority. Therefore, the actual experiment is on the teacher.

Despite the increased yelling by participants, they continue to finish the experiment. As much as many participants wished to stop, Milgram used four phrases to entice them to finish the exercise. The motivating phrases were, “please continue, the experiment requires you to continue, it is necessary for you to continue and you have no other choice, you must go on (Haslam, Nick, Loughnan, and Perry, 2014).”

The Lord of Flies by William Golding introduced characters of evil and good. The study shows that despite many individuals being useful in the world, only a few are great. This is because people control how their environment influences their actions and behaviors. During the feast, Jack sat like a leader and idol as he issued commands such as who was going to join his tribe. [ (pg #?). ] Through his command and leadership authority, most of the boys accepted because they wanted meat and protection from Jack.

Besides, despite Jack punishing Wilfred for no particular or apparent reason, Roger and the rest of the boys of the tribe felt nothing wrong about it. This is because none of the boys had the courage or confidence to stand up for Wilfred. Therefore, the Lord of Flies by William Golding showed that people have a fear of authority and quickly give up justice. Moreover, Jack and Roger tortured Eric and Sam, forcing them to submit to Jack’s command and join his tribe. This shows that authority forces the weak people to follow them using violent action and false use of authority.

The failure of Jack to admit that he took too much power and authority shows that influential leaders are not willing and lack the courage to admit mistakes such as enslaving others. The analysis of the Lord of Flies shows that civilized officers are part of an adult world in which violence and war are associated with social order and civilization. People are expected to obey authority as influential leaders do things to destroy the peaceful world, similar to what Jack did to the boys and vice versa.

Connections

The comparison of Milgram Experiment and the novel of the Lord of Flies show that the boys feared the beast referred as the electronic shocks, while they allowed Jack to gain power and authority through obedience to his command. The review shows that it is easier to control people and persuade them to be savagery by obeying the experiments. This is because the boys followed the authority or command to get protection or avoid the electric shock.

The connection between Milgram Experiment and the novel of the Lord of Flies is evident in that both boys follow the order to obtain protection or avoid electronic shocks. For instance, the boys are stranded and end up following the commands from Jack without comprehending the reasons for doing it. Besides, from both sets of experiments, it is evident that people follow orders without questioning the consequences or impacts on the other party.

William Golding in the Lord of Flies presents the obedience idea in Milgram Experiment through the connections of actors take as a leader, Jack, and Ralph, and the other actors who ideally obey the leader’s command or orders without questioning. This connection shows how people or kids are ready and willing to obey the authority figure that has leadership skills. Besides, both Lord of Flies and Milgram Experiment present the obedience idea through leaders and the ones who unthinkingly follow commands and believe that they should be led.

People who want to be led wait for commands and orders to follow and they believe they need to be directed by a leader as Jack demonstrated by allowing characters to follow him without question. This undeniably connects with Milgram Experiment on obedience. This is because according to the Milgram Experiment, persons are possibly to obey commands by authority figures. Therefore, the robust scenarios of obedience on the Lord of Flies are indicators of Milgram Experiment.

The novel on the Lord of Flies presents the obedience theme, which is accurately connected, to Milgram Experiment on obedience. This is because many instances demonstrate the obedience theme. For instance, Jack is the leader of a group of hunters in a jungle who target to kill a pig, and the group follows him to the jungle without questioning and obediently. The boys have drifted away with the words of command such as “kill the pig,” “cut her throat. Spill her blood”(Laurent et al., 2015, 300).

It is evident that the kids are carried away with the obedience feeling as hunters and Jack manipulate the boys’ fear of the beast, making them obey him even further for protection and safety. The boys not only see Jack as a powerful leader but also obey him without question. Besides, there are other particular moments during the hunting game where Jack uses is authority and command to instill fear in the boys as they obey him unquestioningly. These instances in the novel of the Lord of Flies present how far the obedience feeling can take people.

The kids lose their morality and rational thinking by following commands. Despite the increased use of command, which instills fear and obedience to the boys, the sense of obedience goes off-limits, which signals that things can easily go out of control. Jack who is their leader for the sake of security and food because the boys do everything tells this. Thus, the novel by William Golding in the Lord of Flies presents the idea obedience in Milgram Experiment as it shows that without no doubt individuals will obey commands from others if they perceive them as leaders or authorities (Branson and Buckroyd, 2017, 20).

William Golding presents the obedience idea in Milgram Experiment in the final chapter of the Lord of Flies. In the last chapter of the Lord of Flies, there are clear instances where the boys obey authority figure as well as carrying them to higher levels. It is evident when Jack acts as a leader and as an idol giving commands during the feast where the boys obey the orders without question. Jack commands the boys to join his tribe, and all except Ralph agree to the idea. However, the reason behind Ralph objection is because he is supposedly the chief.

The sense of obedience manifested in Milgram Experiment is present in this scenario as all hunters obey Jack and fail to either object or to question the idea of being a tribe. Despite Wilfred getting punished for no apparent reasons, Roger and the rest of the boys of the tribe do not feel it or question for a reason for the punishment. This shows that they lacked courage and confidence to stand up for Wilfred because their submission and loyalty to their authority blocks them.

Even though Ralph wants to call for an assembly to question Jack, the boys once again prove their obedience and loyalty to their authority figure. Instances of obedience in the novel of the Lord of Flies stem from the idea of obedience from Milgram Experiment. In both groups of boys, they accept the command or authority figure by carrying out the orders issued to them by the leader or teacher.

For instance, if the boys are told to eat, they eat, and if told to fetch something for the leader, they do so. Also, they sit down when told to do so and even if the leader says they should be punished, they accept it without question. This result significantly connects with obedience from Milgram Experiment (Gridley and Jenkins, 2017, 25).

Milgran experiment Critical and Relevance

William Golding successfully puts the obedience idea in the Lord of the Flies novel by installing Jack as the leader. Jack is obeyed, and his subjects follow his commands or orders without questioning. The connections of two scenarios show that philosophic and legal aspects of obedience are of enormous importance. The excessive willingness of people to go to any level in the order of authorities constitutes the main findings of research and the idea that most directly demands full justification.

The study shows that people with authority tend to control the outcome and actions of others. The experiments reveal that a more significant part of people are just willing to comply with authority figures who directs merely them to execute acts that may vary or conflict with their individual coincidence, while the Lord of Flies by William Golding is a real example of obedience to authorities because the people are willing to obey any chain of authority (Hollander, 2017, 430). \

We live in a world where people demand obedience from the authority for them to function well for a society. However, obedience can have significant impacts on a society because authority figures have little to justify actions. Thus, conformity is an impact that influences people to do things they may not have otherwise done. Evidence shows that both obedience and conformity lead to atrocious actions. Therefore, horrendous crimes against humanity have happened and yet people fail to question the actions of authority figures.

The experiment shows that discipline and obedience are learned through social conventions. Thus, individuals are able of substantial evil and great good according to the circumstances they are positioned in. in addition, acts of both resistance and obedience have the power to motivate and inspire people to obey commands of an authority figure.

Conclusion

From the connection between Milgram’s Experiment and Lord of Flies, several factors force people to carry obedience to the extreme, even without questioning the command. People justify their behavior be assigning responsibility to authorities rather than themselves, and they define their behavior which is expected of them as a routine. Besides, evidence from the experiment shows that people do not want to offend or be rude to authority and they obey orders. Therefore, it is essential for people to question orders and reasons behind their issue.

This will ensure that obedience is acknowledged and is not adhered out of fear. The results show how people follow orders and obey leaders without question. This is a disappointing aspect of leadership style as the leaders directly threatened people in order to guarantee the protection and security.

References

Batson, Charles Daniel. What’s wrong with morality?: A social-psychological perspective . Oxford University Press, 2016: 2-25

Bègue, Laurent, et al. “Personality Predicts Obedience in a Milgram Paradigm.” Journal of Personality 83.3 (2015): 299-306.

Branson, Jane, and Peter Buckroyd. Lord of the Flies, William Golding: Workbook. Oxford University Press, 2017: 10-30

Gridley, Mark, and William J. Jenkins. Obedience to Authority. Macat Library, 2017: 20-27

Haslam, Nick, Steve Loughnan, and Gina Perry. “Meta-Milgram: An empirical synthesis of the obedience experiments .” PloS one 9.4 (2014): e93927.

Haslam, S. Alexander, and Stephen D. Reicher. “50 Years of “Obedience to Authority”: From Blind Conformity to Engaged Followership.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 13 (2017): 59-78.

Hollander, Matthew M. “The repertoire of resistance: Non‐compliance with directives in Milgram’s ‘obedience’experiments.” British Journal of Social Psychology54.3 (2015): 425-444.

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Case Studies on Psychiatric stress

Case study on psychiatric stress

Psychiatric stress Case Study

Psychiatric Stress Case Study 1

The case has to establish the compensation for traumatic stress as a result of death caused by negligence of a careless driver. The rules are very clear pertaining to this case. The question is whether the driver of the car is answerable to problem of traumatic stress that is being experienced by the three individuals. The other issue is whether the driver owed the victims the duty of care. The tort principles of negligence can therefore be applied in this case since the drivers conduct was that of negligence hence generated traumatic stress and that the illness was not farfetched when we apply the Wagon Mound test.

The rules therefore requires the complainants to have suffered traumatic stress that is easily recognized and if the victim is a secondary complainant, then should have suffered from shock, the traumatic stress should have been foreseen that the complainant would eventually suffer from traumatic stress as a result of the negligence and that the stress can heal if it was as a result of fear of physical injury to himself. The victim ought to prove that the suffering is as a result of traumatic stress. Very minor stresses like grief are not accepted in the court. In most cases the cases that have been listened to include reactive stresses and also stresses after a trauma. The evidence from the expert is also important in order to prove that the complainant has really been affected.

Damages are in general only recoverable where the recognized psychiatric illness was shock-induced. What is required is “a sudden assault on the nervous system or “the sudden appreciation of a horrifying event, which violently agitates the mind .The law does not in general provide recovery for psychiatric illness brought about by an accumulation of more gradual assaults upon the nervous system. A person who has had to cope with the deprivation consequent upon a bereavement,20 a spouse who has been worn down by caring for an injured husband or wife, and a parent made distraught by the wayward conduct of a brain-damaged child are not able to claim for psychiatric illness suffered as a result.

In the case of Hinz and Berry, the court of appeal entertained a case in the award of 40000 Euros as a compensation for psychiatric stresses. Lord Pearson came up with five reasons why he thought the victim was stressed up. One is sorrow and mourning the loss of the husband, worry about the well being of the children, stresses about money due to the death of the sole bread winner, adjusting to a new way of life and also shock as a result of watching the accident happen. Lord stated that only the issue of witnessing the accident take place qualifies to be compensated since the stresses could not have taken place if the victim did not witness the accident happen.

Those who come to rescue the individuals involved in an accident are also protected under the law in case of any injury as a result of drivers negligence. As with the case of Cardozo J in Wagner v International Railway Co. It is stated that when an accident occurs, automatically rescuers have to come. The law therefore protects this type of reaction which is natural. The law states that this form of reaction is very normal. The law therefore protects them so as not to discourage their actions.

In the case of Chadwick v British railway’s the principle equally applied to the traumatic stresses that came after. This application was eventually approved by Lord Wilberforce in Mcloughlin. The extent to which this law applies is illustrated in Rapley V P 6.10 European Ferries.

The victims therefore ought to receive compensation since their lives have completely changed as a result of the traumatic stress/psychiatric stress. The rescues is well protected under the law. Further, the family member is also considered as a beneficiary since they witnessed the accident taking place hence traumatic stress/psychiatric stress.

Psychiatric stress Case Study 2a

The moment one agrees to offer advice to another party, a special relationship is established since he is relied upon for special guidance. The person therefore assumes the responsibility of advice. When a court is determining special relationship, the court will look at whether the complainant relied on the experts opinion, whether the professional knew that the complainant was relying on him for the advice In the case of Hedley Byrne & Co. Ltd. –v- Heller & Partners Ltd [1964] AC465 2 it was okay for the victim to rely on the professional for advice. Under the proximity test the Supreme Court ruled that it is reasonable for the party affected to get compensation

Psychiatric stress on Case Study 2b

In the case of Berg v. General Motors Corp.,57 which was a case touching on the changes in the a pre-tort reform case, the supreme court in the US the Washington Supreme accepted the payment of damages as a result of negligence. In this case, Berg purchased a vessel which eventually did not give him the service. He sued the company thus general motors for selling him a machine which did not work and caused him a lot of economic losses. Berg sued the company for negligence. The court ruled that the manufacturer was not exposed to further law suits since he was protected by the warranty.

The other case on psychiatric stress involves Stuart v. Coldwell Banker Commercial Group who sued builder of Condominium units so as to compensate for the economic losses for causing economic losses. The builder was accused of negligence. The damages were therefore direct thus the cost of repairing the machine. The judges ruled that when negligence results into risky conditions, the purchaser of the product should be compensated in tort even though the buyer only lost money. The decision in Stuart case does not concur with the Tort changes of 1981. However, it goes against the previous court’s decision in Berg v General Motors Corp. thus the court allowed the victim to be paid the profits as a result of the manufacturer’s negligence.

Psychiatric Stress Case Study 2c

The case of voluntarily accepting responsibility outside a formal contract was first heard in the courts in the UK when there was claim for the compensation of an economic loss and also in the decision of the House of Lords in Hedley Byrne v Heller. In this case of psychiatric stress, a court decided that a bank can be found responsible for the information it provided without bearing in mind its usual clients.where it was decided that a Bank can be liable for a negligent information supplied without consideration to a regular client. In the more recent case of Henderson v Merrett Syndicate Ltd12, Lord Goff, in looking for the principle which underlay the decision in Hedley Byrne, referred to passages in the speeches of Lord Morris and Lord Devlin in that case including a passage in the speech of Lord Devlin where he considered the sort of relationship which gave rise to a responsibility towards those who act upon information or advice, and thus created a Duty of Care towards the person so acting. Lord Devlin had said:
“From these statements, and from their application in Hedley Byrne, we can derive some understanding of the breadth of the principle underlying the case. We can see that it rests upon a relationship between the parties, which may be general or specific to the particular transaction, and which may or may not be contractual in nature. All of their Lordships spoke in terms of one party having assumed or undertaken a responsibility towards the other.”

In White v Jones13 (see infra) Lord Goff stated again that the Hedley Byrne principle was “founded upon an assumption of responsibility.” In Galoo Ltd (In liq) & Others v Bright Grahame Murray (a firm) and another14 the Court of Appeal set out to identify the difference between the facts there and those in its previous decision in Morgan Crucible Co Plc v Hill Samuel Bank Ltd15, that allowed the recovery of an economic loss. The question was when is an adviser, e.g. in this case, an auditor, in close proximity with a person suffering loss by relying on his negligently false advice or information? The answer given by the Court of Appeal in Galoo was, when the auditor ‘intends’ that the third party, a particular identified person, will rely on it16. Thus the bidder relying on the auditor’s accounts of the target company in Galoo had his claim dismissed, because, although he was personally known to the auditor, it was not ‘intended’ by the latter that he should rely on his accounts. The leading judgment of Glidewell L. J. relied on Lord Denning’s so-called ‘classic statement’ in Chandler v Crane Christmas & Co. 17. The auditor’s ‘intention’ was meant as referring to his knowledge, and willingness, of the reliance of the plaintiff, not any willingness to inflict on him financial injury through such false information. It must be noted here that a professional making a false statement in the course of doing his every day job, on the subject-matter of his expertise, will find it hard to shift a presumption of negligence in the error. The idea of a ‘voluntary assumption of responsibility’ was used to explain the importance of ‘intended reliance’, and in Galoo it was turned into a new concept of a ‘voluntary inter-personal’ relationship, said to fall short of being a contract only because of lack of consideration proceeding from the plaintiff to the defendant in return for the advice or information18. In Coulthard and others v Neville Russell (a firm)19 , the Court of Appeal, in another case concerning the civil liability

Psychiatric stress Case Study 3:

Lena, Rasmus and Martin have a case against Apollon which led to their injuries. The employer’s duty of care law focuses on the responsibility of the employer to protect the employees. The employer has to ensure the working area is safe. The enterprise and Regulatory act 2013 also comes into play. So as to succeed with this case under the common law, the three employees will have to show that the injury was foreseeable and that the common laws which provides for standard care were neglected.

The employers liability and public liability claims covers all cases below 25,000 euros. The law applies to cases involving accidents that occurred before or on July 2013. Section 69 of the enterprise and regulatory changes 2013. According to this act, all accidents which happen from 1 October 2013, the civil liability is not about breach of guidelines at the workplace even the criminal proceedings can be launched.

Psychiatric stress Case Study 4 a

The judge will calculate the lump sum award for the damage based on the type of damage and also based on the opinion of the expert on the side of the victim. The age of the victim, extent of the damage and also the ability of the claimant to recover quickly in case of an injury. The damage can be compensatory where a person is compensated for breach of agreement, special damages where a victim is paid the money lost, quantum damages where the victim is compensated after proving that the defendant actions caused him to lose money and also the general damages where someone is compensated money for an injury that does not involve money.

The proximate cause involves a case where compensation as a result of damages to the victim is governed by the principles of law. The damages have to be as a result of the accused bad behavior. This principles applies to the recovery of all damages thus contract or tort.

Psychiatric stress Case Study 4b

The common law requires the victim to be paid all the damages at once. This implies that analysis of the losses ought to be done before and during the prosecution of the case. However, this can be challenging since the victim has no room for appeal if the condition of damage worsens. The award can also be too low or too high since so many factors are considered during the determination process. Furthermore, there is the issue of delay since the compensation can only take place after the whole process of prognosis is finalized. The victim should therefore present the case in a timely manner lest he faces challenges of lateness in court. This has to be done once for both the past and future damages. The victim cannot in any case split the case to present it on separate occasions. The best scenario could therefore be for the victim to be paid periodically.

Psychiatric stress Case Study 4c

In order to realize a reasonable award of damages as a result of negligence, the court ought to consider several factors. The most obvious thing is that Tort law is not the same as criminal law. Torts can be caused by negligence or criminal behavior and also cases revolving around tort have very low threshold of prove. The complainant will always get compensation even if the accused person was acquitted in an earlier criminal case. For instance, O.J Simpson was released in a case where he was accused of murder but found to be guilty of tort due to causing death wrongfully.

Punitive damages as a result of psychiatric stress are never given in order to compensate the victim but rather to send a warning to the accused and any other person from repeating the same mistake. Punitive compensation is therefore given to people who were reckless in their actions. In the case of Liebeck v McDonald’s restaurant (1994) an old woman was burnt with tea which led to very serious burns. Lie back tried to plead with McDonald to pay fo the hospital bills but Mc refused. Through scrutiny, it was discovered that McDonald’s coffee caused very severe damages to other clients. The court asked the hotel to pay for the damages. The court gave Lie Back $2.7 as a punitive damage compensation.

Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562

The duty of care on psychiatric stress revolves around the case of Mrs Donoghue who was bought ice cream and ginger beer. The ginger however, had some dead snail which had started decomposing. The case was successful and led to the development of the modern law on negligence.

The court also need to look at the damage. The case of Hughes v Lord Advocate [1963] AC 837. The boys went to play in the manhole that had been left after works of excavation. The hole had been closed and covered with some paraffin with a lamp. The boys went with the lamp inside the hole and led to a very serious explosion. The court decided that since the burns were seeable, and the explosion was not foreseeable, the boys ought to be compensated.

Vicarious Liability as pertain psychiatric stress in the case of Mohamud v WM Morrison Supermarkets Plc [2016] UKSC 11. A supermarket employee who worked at the fuel station attacked a customer due to provocation. The customer had insulted the employee using racist terms. The Supreme Court ruled that the supermarket was responsible for the employee’s violent behavior to the client and ruled out the defense argument on psychiatric stress.

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Five Personality Traits: Psychology Essay

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Five Personality Traits

Personality characteristics represent individuals’ distinctive patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Consistency and stability are implied by personality characteristics (Cherry, 2021). Characteristic psychology is based on the concept that people differ from one another based on where they stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that endure across time and contexts. The Five-Factor Model is the five personality traits theory most often utilized trait system.

This approach comprises five basic qualities that may be recalled with the abbreviation OCEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (Cherry, 2021). Each of the Big Five features may be subdivided into aspects to provide a more fine-grained examination of someone’s personality. Personality trait theories have long attempted to quantify the number of personality qualities that exist.

Earlier theories, such as Gordon Allport’s list of 4,000 personality traits, Raymond Cattell’s 16 personality components, and Hans Eysenck’s three-factor theory, proposed a wide range of potential qualities (Cherry, 2021). Many researchers, however, believed that Cattell’s hypothesis was too complex, and Eysenck’s was too narrow in scope. As a consequence, the five-factor theory was developed to define the basic qualities that serve as the foundation of personality (Cherry, 2021).

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Five Personality Traits

Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people (Ackerman, 2021). Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. Intellectuals typically score high on Openness to Experience; consequently, this factor has also been called Culture or Intellect.

Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists, who are often themselves open to experience. However, open and closed styles of thinking are useful in different environments (Smith, 2018). The intellectual style of the open person may serve a professor well, but research has shown that closed thinking is related to superior job performance in police work, sales, and a number of service occupations. Its facets include imagination, artistic interests, emotionality,adventurousness, intellect and liberalism.

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The Five Personality Traits

Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a snap decision and acting on our first impulse can be an effective response (Ackerman, 2021). Impulsive individuals can be seen by others as colourful and fun to be with. Acting on impulse can lead to trouble in a number of ways. Some impulses are antisocial. Uncontrolled antisocial acts not only harm other members of society, but also can result in retribution toward the perpetrator of such impulsive acts.

Another problem with impulsive acts is that they often produce immediate rewards but undesirable, long-term consequences (Smith, 2018). Examples include excessive socializing that leads to being fired from one’s job, hurling an insult that causes the breakup of an important relationship, or using pleasure-inducing drugs that eventually destroy one’s health.

Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence (Ackerman, 2021). They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring. Its facets include self-efficacy, orderliness, dutifulness, achievement-Striving and cautiousness.

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Extraversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions (Ackerman, 2021). They tend to be enthusiastic and action-oriented. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves. Its facets include friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity level, excitement-seeking and cheerfulness.

Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others’ (Ackerman, 2021). Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others (Smith, 2018). They are generally unconcerned with others’ well-being, and therefore are unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others’ motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers. Its facets include trust, morality, altruism, cooperation, modesty and sympathy.

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Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. Individuals who are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness (Ackerman, 2021). Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these emotions.

People high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more intense than normal (Ackerman, 2021). They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood.

These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic’s ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress (Smith, 2018).At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Its facets include anxiety, anger, depression, self-Consciousness, immoderation and vulnerability (Ackerman, 2021).

Five Personality Traits

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References

Cherry, K. (2021, February 20). The Big Five Personality Traits. Retrieved from Verywell Mind: https://www.verywellmind.com/the-big-five-personality-dimensions-2795422

Ackerman, C. E. (2021, April 15). Big Five Personality Traits: The OCEAN Model Explained. Retrieved from Positive Psychology: https://positivepsychology.com/big-five-personality-theory/

Smith, D. G. (2018, September 18). Big Data Gives the “Big 5” Personality Traits a Makeover. Retrieved from SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/big-data-gives-the-big-5-personality-traits-a-makeover/

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Big five personality theory Essay

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Big five personality theory

Personality Traits

The big five personality theory has been used in the study of personalities and research since the late 20th century. The model by Costa and McCrae has five factors: Conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, and agreeableness.

Conscientiousness is the characteristic of being orderly and desire to perform well. Individuals who score high in the factor are; self-conscious organized, responsible, reliable, set ambitious goals and achieve them. Conversely, those who score low are less motivated, irresponsible, disorganized and less reliable (Aston, Lee & de Vries, 2014).

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Openness to experience is described as the ability to adapt to new methods of dealing with a life issue. According to Abel & Steve, (2018) people who score high in this factor are insightful, intelligent, curious, and imaginative and appreciate new experiences. Conversely, people who score low are closed minded, suspicious and uncomfortable to try new activities.

Big five personality theory

Extraversion is a trait that describes individuals who can interact with others and adapt to other’s viewpoints (Aston & Lee, 2014). Individuals who score high in the factor are assertive, attention seekers, energetic, talkative and socially confident. Those who score low in the aspect are usually: reserved, quiet, shy, and are intimidated being in large groups.

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Neuroticism is the tendency of developing proportionate worry, anxiety loneliness, and frustrations about the future. Those who score high are described to be: persistently anxious, worriers, fearful and pessimistic. Conversely, those who score low are optimistic, dynamic, and less anxious about problematic situations (Aston & Lee, 2014).

Big five personality theory

Agreeableness describes the value of being pleasant and warm to others. Those who score high are friendly, compassionate, cooperative and altruistic. Those who score low are selfish, uncooperative, suspicious and unfriendly.

The study was done on big five personality traits to assess gender differences across 55 countries. The findings indicated that women scored higher compared to men in agreeableness, neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness (Terracciano, McCrae & Costa, 2014). A Similar current study done in 2015, women scored higher in extraversion and neuroticism, while men scored higher in openness to experience.

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Big five personality theory

References

Abel & Steve (February 2018). What is a trait two basic formulations? Journal of personality psychology.3: 22-35

Aston MC & Lee K de Vries RE (May 2014). The HEXACO Honesty-Humility, Agreeableness, and Emotionality Factors review of research and theory. Personality and Psychology Review. 18(2): 139-52

Terraciano A, Mc Crae RR & Costa PT (2014) ‘Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings.‘ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81(2) 322-331.

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Psychological Foundation of Leadership

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Psychological Foundation of Leadership

Identify ways that a leader could use symbolic acts to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration in the Psychological Foundation of Leadership.

and

Identify the qualities of a change leader. Also, explain how leaders can serve as role models for change. Question 1 –

Symbolic acts to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Teamwork and collaboration are vital components of successful businesses and alternative ventures. Insightful leaders understand the need for developing a culture and strengthening the value of teamwork in their followers. The use of symbolism is instrumental to the strengthening of the cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.

Symbolism involves the use of actions, objects, and events to convey a targeted meaning or impart a given sense or emotion in an individual or group of people (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2017; Sergiovanni & Corbally, 1986, pp. 112 – 113; Winkler, 2009). This section identifies and expounds on several acts by leaders that serve to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.

Open communications
Many employees consider the leadership in a corporate environment as being unreachable. Such a notion may serve to erode a sense of teamwork in the employees since they may not feel like part of a team. To address such concerns, the leadership in an office and corporate setting should find ways to foster a sense of openness in the work environment.

This could include the use of open floor plans of office space, and the abolition of the bureaucratic chain of communication between employees and management (Ford & Sturman, 2011). Such actions represent an example of a symbolic act by the organization’s leadership to show an effort toward the improvement of communication as a tool to create a culture of teamwork and collaboration.

Psychological Foundation of Leadership

Unifying tasks
A critical factor in the creation of a culture that fosters teamwork and collaboration in a harmonious environment is the ability to unify different people. However, the leadership in any organization can achieve this through the creation of tasks within the workplace that create a need to collaborate with other members of the team. A case example is a development of unifying tasks that require input from various members with different skills.

In such a scenario, the leaders would not create a team but instead allow the individuals assigned to the task to seek for and collaborate with other people to complete the task. In this way, therefore, the use of unifying tasks is a symbolic gesture by leaders to strengthen the cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.

Appraising the role of each
The importance and success of any leader lie with the achievement of goals by the individual followers. In this light, therefore, it is essential that the leader provide sufficient motivation for the employees. Ford and Sturman (2011) maintain that instilling beliefs, values, and norms through laws, stories, and legends are imperative to teaching culture within an organizational setting. Besides, the creation of various rituals at the workplace ensures that the followers are informed on the culture and expect the leaders to operate in a given manner (pp. 115 – 119, 123 – 124).

Such rituals may include the appraising of the best performing individuals and groups. This creates a recurring act that fosters better work morale to ensure the followers, especially when operating in a group setting strive to outperform each other. Such appraisals, therefore, not only serve to create an ongoing culture in the organization, but also help to strengthen teamwork and collaboration.

Question 2 – Qualities of a change leader
Emotional intelligence
To spearhead change, a leader needs to have a high level of emotional intelligence. This involves the ability to judge and control their emotions as well as discern and use the emotions of other people. In this case, active change leaders can determine the emotion and moods of their followers and act suitably. Besides, a high emotional quotient can direct the moods of their followers to allow for the right attitudes and mood for the completion of a given task. A key factor is the ability to motivate people that they can succeed at the tasks assigned to them as well as their personal lives.

Psychological Foundation of Leadership

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Active listening, communication, and persuasion
An effective change leader is one who understands the importance of efficiency in communication. A fundamental principle of communication in such a scenario is the ability to listen to the front line people. While most leaders shut out the opinions of frontline staff, change leaders use them as critical assets to learn about the various business metrics (Dallas, 2015). Change leaders should also be able to communicate their ideas effectively to other personnel, which is vital to the implementation of the needed change. The ability to persuade people and bring them on board to accomplish the laid out ideas is essential to change leaders since not every individual is convinced of the need to change (Gleeson, 2016).

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Knowledge
Fostering change requires adequate knowledge in the current situation, as well as the intended outcomes from the change process. Therefore, it is crucial that a change leader is knowledgeable in addition to being a seeker of information. This level of knowledgeability should not be limited to the areas of concern or operation but should be as diverse as possible. The diversity of knowledge for a change leader allows for the adoption of new skills and strategies that are applicable in their areas, which leads to growth and the achievement of the required changes.
Psychological Foundation of Leadership

Accountability
Change agents are responsible for not only the achievement of the required change but also for the various personnel and resources tasked under their administration. As such, a change leader requires a high level of accountability. They should be accountable for the timelines to achieve the set goals, maintaining communications and partnerships, and motivation levels among the followers among other such factors. In the same way, the change leaders demand a high level of accountability from their peers and subordinates (Rylatt, 2013)

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How leaders can serve as role models for change
An effective change leader can serve as an example to their team as well as to other leaders. Among the ways one can serve as a role model for change is to align their words with their actions. Another is practicing self-reflection to exercise similar standards for themselves, as they demand of other people in their teams.

Establishing clear communication of requirements and goals is essential to a successful leader and is an admirable trait. Finally, the leader should show a sense of selfless empathy by being considerate of the needs and well-being of others beyond the task. With such approaches, the leader should have a presentable image that others can emulate.

Psychological Foundation of Leadership

References

Dallas, H. J. (2015, October 22). 4 must-have skills for leaders to manage change. Retrieved from Fortune Magazine: http://fortune.com/2015/10/22/change-leaders-managers/

Ford, R., & Sturman, M. C. (2011). Harnessing the Power of Your Culture for Outstanding Service. In J. B. M. C. Sturman (Ed.), The Cornell School of Hotel (pp. 111 – 126 ). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing.

Gleeson, B. (2016, August 16). 3 Leadership Skills Critical For Driving Change. Retrieved from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/sites/brentgleeson/2016/08/16/3-leadership-skills-critical-for-driving-change/#675f5cc34fde

Hambrick, D., & Lovelace, J. (2017). The Role of Executive Symbolism In Advancing New Strategic Themes in Organizations: A Social Influence Perspective. Academy of Management ReviewAcademy of Management Review, 1 – 53. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://amr.aom.org/content/early/2017/02/09/amr.2015.0190.full.pdf

Rylatt, A. (2013, July). Three Qualities of Highly Successful Change Agents. Retrieved from Association for Talent Development: https://www.td.org/magazines/td-magazine/three-qualities-of-highly-successful-change-agents

Sergiovanni, T. J., & Corbally, J. E. (1986). Leadership and Organizational Culture: New Perspectives on Administrative Theory and Practice. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Winkler, I. (2009). Symbolic Leadership. Contemporary Leadership Theories, 59 – 63.

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Good parenting

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Good parenting

Psychology Article Analysis: Good parenting heals your child’s brain

Psychology Article Analysis: Good parenting heals your child’s brain

The article ‘Good parenting heals your child’s brain,’ was written by Armin Brott and posted on hitched magazine on 21^st January, 2014. It can be obtained through the following link; http://www.hitchedmag.com/article.php?id=1765

Good parenting

Main ideas

Children who grow up in institutions as opposed to with their families have cardinal brain development deficits, similar to children who grew up in poverty. Poverty brings about stress that result to damaged DNA and cells, poor immune system function, and inflammation. Orphans in institutions possess more neurological and behavioral deficits compared to those who lived in family (Brott, 2014).

At the age of for and half years, more than forty percent of the orphans had anxiety disorders while four percent had critical depressive disorders. In addition, many orphans exhibited autism signs including stereotyping and repetitive behaviors (arm-flapping and rocking).

Good parenting

Children living in institutions possess less white and gray matter (this matter connects various brain regions) compared to those in foster homes or living with their families. In addition, they have smaller amygdala and hippocampus that are vital for memory, learning, and emotion (Brott, 2014). Reduced white matter is common in a majority of the psychiatric and neurological conditions such as ADHD, schizophrenia, and autism.

A developmental neuroscientist explained that the less white matter meant less brain electrical activity- ‘alpha power’. These brain differences were accountable for the behavioral variations in the different groups of children- higher levels of anxiety and depression disorders in children in institutions (Brott, 2014). Children in foster homes and institutions had higher levels of oppositional defiant behavior and ADHD.

This gives the implication that children are placed in foster homes too late after profound deprivations had been experienced. Children can never recover from early-life isolation and the social deprivation is devastating. The environment in a child’s life between 0-5 years is vital for their future.

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Good parenting heals your child’s brain

Article’s purpose

The article aims at creating awareness that poverty leads to children’s stunted brain growth. However, research indicates that good parenting reverses these impacts (Brott, 2014). Therefore, there is a need for families (particularly parents) to raise their own children and avoid leaving that responsibility to the community and other people. In addition, the brain requires stimulation for development and growth.

The field of psychology explained

Autism experts, behavioralists, and developmental neuroscientists have a key role in ensuring a community with healthy people (Brott, 2014).

Analysis

Viewpoint

The article’s viewpoint is that there is a need for enriched environments during childhood and infancy. Social deprivation is the reason why children living in institutions have higher levels of anxiety and depression disorders.

Reasonable information

The article offers reasonable information owing to the fact that the information was obtained from credible researches.

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Is the information believable?

The information is believable since the parents were assessed keenly before the report was written. The information has also been cross examined.

Persuasiveness

The article persuades parents to practice good parenting as this plays a great role in ensuring healthy and productive children.

Information that can be added

The study should have elaborated what factors in the different environments contributed to altered brain function and structure.

Good parenting heals your child’s brain

Reference

Brott, A. (2014). Good parenting heals your child’s brain. Retrieved on 21^st January, 2014 from http://www.hitchedmag.com/article.php?id=1765

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Explicit and Implicit Memory

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Explicit and Implicit Memory

Define and explain the differences between Explicit and Implicit Memory. Explain the role of the hippocampus in forming memories.

Explicit and Implicit Memory

Explicit memory is the information that an individual works consciously to remember while information that is remembered effortlessly or unconsciously is known as implicit memory. There has been a lot of research on explicit memory and presently, researchers are working on finding out how implicit memory functions and the influence it has on behavior and knowledge (Myers, 2011).

Explicit memory stores information in cases where a person is trying to remember something intentionally, for example, what was learnt at school. This memory is used daily when recalling things such as the time and date of an appointment, the current president, a friend’s phone number, and a test’s information.

This memory is also referred to as declarative memory since an individual explains and recalls the information consciously. Explicit memory may be semantic that involves memories of names, concepts, and facts, or episodic that deals with long-term memories of particular events (Myers, 2011).

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Implicit memory involves the things people do not try to remember purposely. It is both unintentional and unconscious (Myers, 2011). It is also referred to as declarative as an individual cannot make it available consciously. For example, a person does not consciously remember how to turn on the television. Although implicit memory is recalled consciously, it has an impact on behavior and knowledge on varying tasks.

The role of the Hippocampus in forming memories

The brain’s horse-shoe shaped area has a vital role in that it consolidates information from short-term into long-term memory. The hippocampus is a component of the limbic system that is linked to long-term memories and emotions. Moreover, it is involved in complicated processes including organizing, storing, and forming memories. In case one hippocampus side gets damaged, memory function remains almost normal as it is present in the two brain hemispheres (Myers, 2011).

Explicit and Implicit Memory

Reference

Myers, D. G. (2011). Psychology in Everyday Life (2^nd Ed.). (Chapter 6, 78-90). New York: Worth Publishers.

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Elizabeth Loftus Research Focus

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Elizabeth Loftus

A current and fascinating area of research is that of Elizabeth Loftus. Dr. Loftus believes that memory can be reconstructed and changed based upon outside influences and has studied misinformation effects, eyewitness testimony and memories of abuse.

Read about Dr. Loftus’ research in the textbook and go to You Tube to search for Elizabeth Loftus. www.youtube.com

There are many videos about her and explaining her research. Choose 2 videos ( Please provide links to it)which you find interesting (choose ones that have her actually speaking about her research and not copies of her experiments done by others.)

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Dr. Elizabeth Loftus also has her own website.

Answer the following questions in essay form (please answer and number each question separately) –

1. Explain the 2 YouTube videos that you watched about Dr. Loftus.

2. Discuss the Mini Lecture #20 article and video. Watch both parts of the video to answer the questions.

a What occurred to Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton?

b How did the police investigation and procedures allow this injustice to occur?

c How have police procedures changed now?

d What are your thoughts about this story?

Elizabeth Loftus

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3. Discuss 3 facts that you learned about memory from reading Myers’ discussion of Memory in chapter 7 of the textbook. Cite pages of textbook.Question 1

In the first video, Elizabeth Loftus discusses the possibility of implanting a false childhood memory in a person’s mind by merely suggesting that it happened through the use of actual facts and suggestions of possibilities of what would have took place. This was done by getting background information from the subjects’ parents prior to talking to them. A quarter of this population ended up accepting the existence of the memory which was in fact false (Loftus, 2009).

In the second video, Elizabeth Loftus discusses the unreliability of eye witness testimonies. Her hypothesis or argument is that eye witness accounts are actually much more malleable than we think. This is to say that the accuracy of these events is more flexible thus making it unreliable as a source of reference for incidents that individuals have witnessed (Loftus, 2010).

Question 2

Jennifer Thompson was raped and in a bid to ensure the rapist gets justice insisted that Ronald Cotton was the one. As a result, he got convicted of a crime he did not commit and spent a decade in prison.

Police investigations allowed this injustice to occur because they relied exclusively on the eye witness account rather than other important circumstances.

Police procedures have changed in that there is more reliance on forensic evidence in combination with eye witness accounts.

This story makes me have serious doubts about eye witness testimonies and also it leads me to be sympathetic about the large number of people who have probably been convicted despite their innocence due to reliance on eye witness accounts.

Elizabeth Loftus

Question 3

The first fact I have learnt is that that there are three stages of memory formation and these are sensory, short-term and then long-term memory.

The second fact I learnt is that routine events are easy to recall because they have become automatic thus leaving very little need for effort.

The third fact I got was that sleep is indeed good for the brain (Myers, n.d.).

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Question 4

Memory can therefore be summarized as a the sum or recollections that an individual experiences subjectively depending on the context of the actual event as well as the present situation.

References

Loftus, E (2009) The Power of Suggestion. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il0u2s_WGXA

Loftus, E (2010) Eye Witness Testimony Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SP8kJ5A5xU8

Myers, D (n.d.) Psychology in Everyday Life. Second Edition

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How does psychotherapy help people

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How does psychotherapy help people?

How do psychologists define a psychological disorder? What are the 3 terms used to identify a disorder?

Explain the ideas of the medical model and the biopsychosocial approach. How do they each help our understanding of mental illness?

Explain 2 ways to treat psychological disorders. For what type of disorders would each treatment be used?

Answer

How does psychotherapy help people? How does Psychotherapy help People?

There are three main ways that psychotherapy helps people. These are the provision of hope for people who are demoralized. The second way is the provision of an alternative perspective for people whose lives have been negatively affected by a psychological disorder. Psychotherapy also provides mental patients with an opportunity to develop empathetic, trusting and also caring relationships (Myers, 363).

Many people who have experienced psychological challenges tend to me demoralized about life and this gives them a negative outlook towards different matters in life. With psychotherapy, the hope that these people have can be renewed leading them to have a second chance at different matters in life. This then empowers them to take on different challenges head on (Myers, 363).

Another benefit of psychotherapy is that it helps individuals to alter the perspectives they have towards life from a negative one to a more positive one. This is done through encouraging these individuals to look at the positive aspects of their lives and situations (Myers, 363).

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Last but not least, psychotherapy is beneficial to people with psychological disorders because it offers them a chance to form empathetic, trusting and caring relationships with other people. The treatment procedures that are covered in psychotherapy gradually prepare these individuals to readjust into a society that had probably shunned them due to antisocial acts they may have been involved in at one time or another during their mental disorder.

By forming these relationships, people can recover faster since the people in their lives have a better understanding of what challenges the patients are going through (Myers, 363).

Psychotherapy is therefore important since it strives to improve the quality of life people who have previously suffered mental disorders thus giving them a new lease of life (Myers, 363).

Works Cited

Myers, D (n.d.) Psychology in Everyday Life. Second Edition

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