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Positive Health Behaviors
One of the most basic instruments of modern public health and preventive medicine is disease screening and positive health behaviors. Screening programs have a long and illustrious history in efforts to prevent infectious disease outbreaks and focus chronic illness therapy. Pregnant women are frequently tested for a complete blood count, blood type, diabetes, syphilis, and other diseases. The approach of disease screening has been demonstrated to save lives, save health-care expenditures, and alleviate suffering.
Breast and cervical cancer screening has been particularly effective in decreasing the disease burden in women (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005). Health screenings should be a top priority for everyone to promote good health. some of the most important advantages of health screening Early diagnosis of illnesses can lead to improved treatment and management, lowering the risk of complications and improving the odds of a positive health outcome.
Positive Health Behaviors
Health screening determines if a patient is at risk for, or already has, a disease or condition (Farrington & Mikkelsen, 2020). Furthermore, health screening can aid in the prevention of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and diabetes in those who have a family history of these conditions, as well as offer prompt treatment (Farrington & Mikkelsen, 2020). Age is a key risk factor for a wide range of life-altering illnesses. Early identification and treatment, on the other hand, might provide the body with the strongest resistance against these disorders (Farrington & Mikkelsen, 2020).
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Positive Health Behaviors
Screening, however, can be harmful. When three characteristics of screening programs work in concert, the impact is greater than often recognized. As an example due to the fact that the majority of people who are checked do not have the illness, screening can potentially damage more people than it can help (Farrington & Mikkelsen, 2020). There will always be false positives and negatives since screening tests are not 100 percent sensitive or specific.
Early identification of diseases can lead to overdiagnosis, which is when a person is diagnosed with a condition that will never damage them in their lifetime (Farrington & Mikkelsen, 2020). Also, the ability to reach the desired audience, load on the government, and how everyone involved approaches the problem. Every Woman Counts initiative, which aimed to provide women with preventative health care, proved ineffectual.
In looking at the enrollees in the Nebraska Every Woman Matters program who were getting checked for breast and cervical cancer, it was discovered that there was a link between socio-demographic factors and obtaining cancer screening. As a result, getting cancer screening services is hampered by people’s social position, income, and knowledge.
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Because the advantages and risks of screening are diverse in nature and are assessed and valued differently, it’s impossible to compare them. Valuing benefits and harm is affected by such things as the economic capability of individuals. That is why organizations such as Every Woman Matters (EWM) which is a state-run federally funded program were formed to reduce financial and public awareness barriers to preventative breast and cervical cancer screening by improving public knowledge of the danger and making screening more affordable for low-income women (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005).
A clinical breast examination, mammography, and Papanicolaou smear test are provided at a reduced or free cost to eligible women. Practices can use the EWM program’s services to help them implement the program. With the aim to reduce the number and impact of risks as well as improving their service delivery in hospitals and clinics, the EWM program conducted an analysis using the GAPS method (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005).
They included office employees at each phase of the GAPS model to improve preventive care and alter office operations: goal-setting, analyzing existing routines, planning routine modification, and giving support for these improvements (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005). The findings of the analysis showed that the main reasons why program was not effective in meeting its preset goals include lack of enthusiasm from some physicians and staff, lack of leadership skills of individuals who are in charge of the facilities and also organizational problems hence some internal instability (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005).
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Despite the obstacles that prevented large improvements in screening in some of the practices, we feel the GAPS model’s ideas are valid and propose it as a realistic structure for bringing desired change to a complex organizational system like a clinical practice (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005). In addition, additional process factors like as leadership, cohesion, resources, and shared vision were emphasized in our research (Backer, Gesk, McIlvain, Dodendorf, & Minier, 2005).
Positive Health Behaviors
There are a good number of successful advocacy programs for early cancer screening and evaluate the characteristics that are deemed effective and are given credit for the work they do. A good example is the American Cancer Society who promote a healthy lifestyle to help prevent cancer for all people. By supporting cancer advocacy in nations with growing cancer societies, the ACS has taken a leadership position in global cancer advocacy (ACS, n.d.).
The centerpiece of the ACS global effort is training international cancer control leaders through the American Cancer Society University (ACSU) in all aspects of running a community-based cancer control organization or program (ACS, n.d.). The ACSU program begins with a week-long course, which is held a few times each year in different parts of the world, followed by support of participants in home countries (ACS, n.d.).
This society donates millions of dollars annually to cancer clinics and hospitals, all of which is utilized in cancer research, cancer prevention, cancer screening and many other services (ACS, n.d.). Another such organization is The International Union Against Cancer, also known as UICC, which is the most prominent and inclusive international body dedicated to cancer control. It is a membership organization with a small administrative head office, with controlling committees made up of volunteers (Mortara, 2011).
The World Cancer Congress, conducted every two years in a large city, most recently in Washington, DC in 2006, is the most conspicuous UICC activity (Mortara, 2011). Thousands of people from all walks of life attend these conferences, the vast majority of whom are from high-income nations, but with a growing focus on establishing efficient cancer management in those countries (Mortara, 2011).
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Positive Health Behaviors
Those involved in the health care system, nurses, physicians, patients, and others play increasingly interdependent roles. Problems arise every day that do not have easy or singular solutions. Leaders who merely give directions and expect them to be followed will not succeed in this environment.
What is needed is a style of leadership that involves working with others as full partners in a context of mutual respect and collaboration. To accomplish the objective of a reformed health-care system, strong leadership will be necessary. Strong leadership is critical if the vision of a transformed health care system is to be realized.
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References
Backer, E. L., Gesk, J. A., McIlvain, H. E., Dodendorf, D. M., & Minier, W. C. (2005). Improving Female Preventive Health Care Delivery Through Practice Change: An Every Woman Matters Study. The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine.
Farrington, J., & Mikkelsen, B. (2020). Screening programmes: a short guide. Copenhagen: World Health Organization.
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Disaster Response Plan
While no plan can guarantee that death and damage will not occur, excellent plans implemented by experienced and well-trained individuals may and will reduce losses. The purpose of the Chemtool chemical plant Emergency Operation Plan (EOP) is to identify and respond to incidents by outlining the responsibilities and duties of Chemtool chemical plant, its employees and the locals as well.
The goal of this plan is to offer adequate life safety measures, limit property loss, and safeguard the environment, as well as to reassure and care for the public and ensure the quick restoration of impacted companies and community services. Accidents resulting in the discharge of chemicals or hazardous waste will occur despite staff’s best efforts to operate cautiously in the laboratory.
Disaster Response Plan
Spills in Hazardous Waste Accumulation Areas administered by the Facilities Department are also a possibility.
There are two main types of chemical spills namely the minor and major chemical spills (Manitoba, 2013). The minor spill is one whereby the chemical is known and does not pose a major threat to safety and health. As a result, it has little chance of becoming an emergency. Workers in the local vicinity or Facilities personnel can absorb, neutralize, or otherwise control and clean up the substance (Manitoba, 2013).
Major spills, on the other hand, the chemical is unknown and hence poses a threat as highly toxic or reactive. It poses an immediate and serious threat to one’s health. Outside a fume hood, there is a probability of a fire hazard or an explosion risk, resulting in harm to persons nearby (Manitoba, 2013). The tools and materials needed to effectively contain and clean up the spill are not available, and the response and cleanup are beyond the knowledge and capabilities of workers in the local area or Facilities personnel (Manitoba, 2013).
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Disaster Response Plan
The Chemtool Inc. chemical plant in Rockton manufactures finish greases for the manufacture of automobiles and industrial machines (Chemtool Incorporated, 2020). The firm also creates ecologically friendly and cost-effective functional fluid products. Agriculture, automotive, construction, energy, food, and heavy mobile sectors all benefit from manufactured items (Chemtool Incorporated, 2020).
The plant, however, experienced a major spill that, if not managed soon, would lead to the infection of the Rock river close to it as well as serious health and security problems to both the employees and residents within its vicinity. Considering the fact that it was a major spill, all sorts of threats have to be considered. Toxic or toxic gases can cause serious disease, and in rare circumstances, death.
When corrosive chemicals are handled, they can inflict serious burns, impair vision, and affect the respiratory tract. Some chemical spills cause cancer years after the first exposure, such as asbestos inhalation, which causes lung cancer years later. Chemical spills can have serious consequences for the environment as well. With run-off pollution in the ocean, spilled oil and other pollutants can cause physical harm to marine life. In this case, a major impact is anticipated for the Rock river.
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Disaster Response Plan
Spilled chemicals can also flow down into the soil, causing significant ecological harm and rendering certain regions uninhabitable for flora and wildlife.
To guarantee a quick and safe chemical spill response that minimizes the effect of any chemical spills, adopt the following procedures. An important factor in swift chemical clean-up is the ability of employees to understand the severity of a spill and assess the safety of the spill site. If an immediate threat is posed, the area in which the spill occurred should be evacuated immediately. Large spills that are too difficult to clear with normal chemical cleanup kits should also be reported as soon as possible to fire and medical officials.
In the event of an accidental leak, begin conventional chemical cleanup measures right once. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act) was passed to prevent workers from being killed or otherwise harmed at work (OSHA, 2017). The law requires employers to provide their employees with working conditions that are free of known dangers. The OSH Act created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), which sets and enforces protective workplace safety and health standards (OSHA, 2017).
OSHA also provides information, training and assistance to employers and workers (OSHA, 2017). Hence, based on the OSHA, anyone working with chemicals should put on Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that is appropriate for the chemical and the hazard it poses right away.
Disaster Response Plan
In order to minimize the after-effect of the spill, funding is needed from the federal government as well as other organizations. The cost includes spill response actions, on-site sampling and analysis, full environmental site investigation and remediation of contaminated sites (Green Ocean, 2017). Where spills of oils or liquids are contained within a barrier or drainage system rather than being absorbed in the surface. Natural resource damage assessment and restoration is also to be considered (Green Ocean, 2017).
The Chemtool chemical plant will restore natural resources injured as a result of hazardous substance releases into the environment and pay for it too. The action of reducing the severity and seriousness of possible consequences for the environment and communities may involve specialists from diverse areas and industries (Green Ocean, 2017). The federal government is requested to provide funds for the mitigation as well as litigation.
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Lastly, in order to prevent the occurrence of another chemical spill, certain steps will be taken. First, a realistic assessment of the risk at the outset will be made (Scientific American, 2010). Second, government oversight needs an overhaul. This will play a big role in prevention of the occurrence of another spill (Scientific American, 2010). Also, the employees of the company will taken through some classes to educate them on spill prevention and also how to handle such a situation if it is to occur again in the future (Scientific American, 2010).
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Psychological Foundation of Leadership
Identify ways that a leader could use symbolic acts to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration in the Psychological Foundation of Leadership.
and
Identify the qualities of a change leader. Also, explain how leaders can serve as role models for change. Question 1 –
Symbolic acts to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration. Teamwork and collaboration are vital components of successful businesses and alternative ventures. Insightful leaders understand the need for developing a culture and strengthening the value of teamwork in their followers. The use of symbolism is instrumental to the strengthening of the cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Symbolism involves the use of actions, objects, and events to convey a targeted meaning or impart a given sense or emotion in an individual or group of people (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2017; Sergiovanni & Corbally, 1986, pp. 112 – 113; Winkler, 2009). This section identifies and expounds on several acts by leaders that serve to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Open communications Many employees consider the leadership in a corporate environment as being unreachable. Such a notion may serve to erode a sense of teamwork in the employees since they may not feel like part of a team. To address such concerns, the leadership in an office and corporate setting should find ways to foster a sense of openness in the work environment.
This could include the use of open floor plans of office space, and the abolition of the bureaucratic chain of communication between employees and management (Ford & Sturman, 2011). Such actions represent an example of a symbolic act by the organization’s leadership to show an effort toward the improvement of communication as a tool to create a culture of teamwork and collaboration.
Psychological Foundation of Leadership
Unifying tasks A critical factor in the creation of a culture that fosters teamwork and collaboration in a harmonious environment is the ability to unify different people. However, the leadership in any organization can achieve this through the creation of tasks within the workplace that create a need to collaborate with other members of the team. A case example is a development of unifying tasks that require input from various members with different skills.
In such a scenario, the leaders would not create a team but instead allow the individuals assigned to the task to seek for and collaborate with other people to complete the task. In this way, therefore, the use of unifying tasks is a symbolic gesture by leaders to strengthen the cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Appraising the role of each The importance and success of any leader lie with the achievement of goals by the individual followers. In this light, therefore, it is essential that the leader provide sufficient motivation for the employees. Ford and Sturman (2011) maintain that instilling beliefs, values, and norms through laws, stories, and legends are imperative to teaching culture within an organizational setting. Besides, the creation of various rituals at the workplace ensures that the followers are informed on the culture and expect the leaders to operate in a given manner (pp. 115 – 119, 123 – 124).
Such rituals may include the appraising of the best performing individuals and groups. This creates a recurring act that fosters better work morale to ensure the followers, especially when operating in a group setting strive to outperform each other. Such appraisals, therefore, not only serve to create an ongoing culture in the organization, but also help to strengthen teamwork and collaboration.
Question 2 – Qualities of a change leader Emotional intelligence To spearhead change, a leader needs to have a high level of emotional intelligence. This involves the ability to judge and control their emotions as well as discern and use the emotions of other people. In this case, active change leaders can determine the emotion and moods of their followers and act suitably. Besides, a high emotional quotient can direct the moods of their followers to allow for the right attitudes and mood for the completion of a given task. A key factor is the ability to motivate people that they can succeed at the tasks assigned to them as well as their personal lives.
Psychological Foundation of Leadership
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Active listening, communication, and persuasion An effective change leader is one who understands the importance of efficiency in communication. A fundamental principle of communication in such a scenario is the ability to listen to the front line people. While most leaders shut out the opinions of frontline staff, change leaders use them as critical assets to learn about the various business metrics (Dallas, 2015). Change leaders should also be able to communicate their ideas effectively to other personnel, which is vital to the implementation of the needed change. The ability to persuade people and bring them on board to accomplish the laid out ideas is essential to change leaders since not every individual is convinced of the need to change (Gleeson, 2016).
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Knowledge Fostering change requires adequate knowledge in the current situation, as well as the intended outcomes from the change process. Therefore, it is crucial that a change leader is knowledgeable in addition to being a seeker of information. This level of knowledgeability should not be limited to the areas of concern or operation but should be as diverse as possible. The diversity of knowledge for a change leader allows for the adoption of new skills and strategies that are applicable in their areas, which leads to growth and the achievement of the required changes. Psychological Foundation of Leadership
Accountability Change agents are responsible for not only the achievement of the required change but also for the various personnel and resources tasked under their administration. As such, a change leader requires a high level of accountability. They should be accountable for the timelines to achieve the set goals, maintaining communications and partnerships, and motivation levels among the followers among other such factors. In the same way, the change leaders demand a high level of accountability from their peers and subordinates (Rylatt, 2013)
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How leaders can serve as role models for change An effective change leader can serve as an example to their team as well as to other leaders. Among the ways one can serve as a role model for change is to align their words with their actions. Another is practicing self-reflection to exercise similar standards for themselves, as they demand of other people in their teams.
Establishing clear communication of requirements and goals is essential to a successful leader and is an admirable trait. Finally, the leader should show a sense of selfless empathy by being considerate of the needs and well-being of others beyond the task. With such approaches, the leader should have a presentable image that others can emulate.
Ford, R., & Sturman, M. C. (2011). Harnessing the Power of Your Culture for Outstanding Service. In J. B. M. C. Sturman (Ed.), The Cornell School of Hotel (pp. 111 – 126 ). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing.
Hambrick, D., & Lovelace, J. (2017). The Role of Executive Symbolism In Advancing New Strategic Themes in Organizations: A Social Influence Perspective. Academy of Management ReviewAcademy of Management Review, 1 – 53. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://amr.aom.org/content/early/2017/02/09/amr.2015.0190.full.pdf
Sergiovanni, T. J., & Corbally, J. E. (1986). Leadership and Organizational Culture: New Perspectives on Administrative Theory and Practice. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
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EMR system
Managing Health Care Business Strategy
What elements (at least two) are missing from the action plan in Table9.1 for the EMR system? Justify your choice
Piloting is a very important element which has been omitted from the action plan. Piloting helps to ensure that the vendor will supply a truly tested and proven system which is relevant to the organization. The risk of not piloting is too high given that a lot of money goes into acquiring such a system.
Failure to pilot a system can lead to multiple challenges such as loss of funds in that, after procuring the system, most likely it will be a custom – made one and therefore in the event it malfunctions, the vendor might not accept it back since the specifications, coding and even the program used is tailor made for the organization which ordered for the EMR system and therefore the vendor cannot resell it.
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Another problem associated with failure to pilot the system is the possible loss of data in that a malfunction if system is fully implemented without piloting will lead to difficulties if the system fails. Loss of man power hours is also a likely outcome of an EMR system which was not properly tested before implementation. Also employees are known to oppose changes especially those which touch on their work. EMR systems digitalize the records of an organization and therefore an EMR should be effective in providing the relevant information in as far as medical records are concerned (Moseley III & George, 2008).
The EMR should function so well that all users in a medical set up should be able to access information with ease. This is only possible if employees get a chance to try the system way before it is implemented. This in turn creates an opportunity for the management and the vendors to receive feedback from the employees and deliver a final product which is not only user friendly but also one which will make the employees feel like they own it. Finally piloting serves to improve a system in that system bugs will be identified and fixed therefore the hospital will end up with a cost effective system.
EMR system
Funding is very important in any system implementation process and this requires the involved stakeholders to budget for the project. It also calls for approval from the top management such as the organization’s board of directors. Indeed, many good plans in organizations end up unimplemented due to lack of funding or sometimes underfunding which can cause a project to stall even at its very final phase.
Therefore the managers should ‘count cost’ before initiating an EMR project. The stalling of a project can cause conflicts in an organization, stemming from disillusioned employees. Sometimes this can lead to big losses in the future.
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Project auditing which is also known as a preliminary needs analysis is a very crucial step which serves to give project credence. This also ensures that processes are done in a transparent manner. Since the auditing will answer questions such as; is the project important? Is it timely? Is it cost effective? And if it will add value to the organization, this is very important because it’s the auditing report can even cause the project to be dropped altogether.
Describe the activities that should be implemented to address themissing elements.
For piloting activity, the system will have to be implemented in one department first before approval and subsequent application in the whole organization. Testing and piloting therefore need to happen so as to give a preview of what to expect upon project implementation. It will not be prudent to skip this stage/phase only to end up with a system installed but hat which cannot fulfill its intended purposes
EMR system
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Describe where these activities would be added to the list (relative to the other activities already listed).
The three activities can each be arranged with the help of a Gantt chart which serves to show what activities must be completed first before which others. In this case auditing or needs assessment should be the first step towards a successful implementation of an EMR. This is because the verdict given at this stage influences whether the EMR is necessary and profitable for the organization. Project piloting or testing will follow thereafter if the needs assessment of auditing gives a nod for the organization to implement fully the project. The second last step should be the piloting step which should happen just before full implementation.
Funding on the other hand ensures that enough finances and other resources are set aside to carry on the projection to completion. Without the EMR system being factored in the budget, it only means the project will not take off let alone starting.
Project auditing calls for a team of experts in a given area. The experts in EMR implementation offer a neutral stand point which is regarded with honor by many and therefore by allowing the auditing process, needs are identified and solutions suggested. This leads to a process that is smooth and devoid of avoidable errors.
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Specify exactly which people from the hospitals and practice willparticipate in these new activities and justify your choice.
The three additional activities suggested will need to be handled by experts in their respective fields. It is however worthy noting that in all steps of the project process, stakeholder identification and involvement is very crucial. Employees at various levels in the hospital are very important stakeholders and must be involved in the system design and implementation so that they may own it. Those who audit the EMR should be experts in the area as well as the managers in the relevant departments.
EMR system
As for the funding the organization, the chief executive officer or the board must be involved because they are the one to authorize money to carry on the other phases. Finally piloting and testing needs to be done by two technical teams, one from the supplier and the order one representing the interest of the hospital. In conclusion, it is clear that despite the enormous advantages of an EMR system, its purchase and installation needs more than just consulting with the physicians; it as well requires careful considerations so that the resulting product is the best value for money.
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Disabilities in Society
Introduction Disability may take two different approaches depending on the frame of reference or the circumstances. The meaning of disability may take a bio-medical approach or a functional approach. For the purpose of this research paper, disability shall be assessed on two main points of view. First, a disability shall be defined as any condition that when judged on the basis of function, it renders an individual impaired in comparison to the typical or standard way of functioning.
Statistically, disability can be understood as a condition that renders an individual’s performance or functioning in a particular area to fall below the population average or the average performance of the general group in the same area. This impairment may be cognitive, intellectual, physical, mental disability, or some types of chronic diseases.
Disabilities are everywhere in the society. In learning institutions, there are students with learning disabilities. At the workplace there are individuals or employees with disabilities. While some disabilities originate from childhood or childhood experiences, some originate from the adulthood when an individual is already in the working-age. This research paper explores both scenarios and makes an attempt to draw a connection between them consequently assessing the policy implications of disabilities in the society and the practicability of these social policies in achieving their objectives.
The main aim of this research paper is to explore disability on a wider perspective and examine it with respect to the society’s attitude to disability then explores policy implications of the experiences of the disabled members of the society with a more inclination on the learners and those in the working-age.
Disabilities in Society
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Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework used in this research paper is based on the framework developed by Connors (2007), which traces disability in the society from the sociology of childhood and through the social relationship model while at the same time incorporating the aspect of difference in the model. Even though the Connors’ theoretical was basically focused on exploring the experiences of children with disabilities in the society, the model is fit for this particular study since it gives an appropriate approach to the roots of disability and provides a better understanding of the experiences disabled members of the society experience from childhood to adulthood.
Therefore, the theoretical framework of this paper is developed on the basis of the social model of disability and the social relational model of disability and incorporates the concept of difference to explore the subject of disability in the society. One part puts emphasis on the importance of the environment on the participation while the other puts emphasis on the significance of the quality of life.
The Sociology of Childhood
The majority of previous childhood studies have dwelled mainly on exploring and researching on the development of the child and the main areas of focus have been the child’s psychological development, social development and physical development. it is important to trace disabilities in the society from a childhood perspective because most disabilities originate from early days of human development.
However, as has been mentioned, the studies on childhood development did not put into consideration the disabilities that children acquire or are born with and which they live with into their adulthood. The studies mainly viewed children in adult eyes thereby giving children a passive role in their development. They were therefore viewed by the society as adults in training (Mayall 2002).
The notion that childhood, as opposed to biological immaturity, could be a result of socially constructed aspect that results from the interplay of factors like social class, individual’s gender and ethnicity only came to materialization in the course of the ‘sociology of childhood’. A number of studies (e.g. Mayall 2002 and James 1993) recognized that children possess a distinctive perspective and dynamically shaping their own lives.
These studies, which have provided a clearer picture of children’s accounts of their experiences, have enabled the society to realize and appreciate that the lives of the children in the society are not homogenous. This lack of homogeneity therefore necessitates studies that look at the children all their diversity (Brannen and O’ Brien 1995). Studies must pay special attention to the children’s experiences if at all the general themes in the lives of children should be understood.
This approach, according to Colver (2005) in his paper on social model of disability, brings out greater potential for understanding the social model of disability and integrating the understanding with the sociology of childhood and this in turn allows a better understanding of the experiences of the disabled children. The social model accentuates the significance of the environment to participation.
Disabilities in Society
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The social relational model of disability
Connors’ work (2005) was principally important to the achievement of this paper’s objective because of the extensive work laid out in the study relating to the experiences of the disabled people in the society. The author provides an extensive relationship between unequal social relationship and disabilities in the society. The author further likens this relations hip and its origins in the society to that or racism and sexism, which both result in social impositions of restrictions “of activity on the impaired people by the non-impaired members of the society” (Connors 2005).
These imposed restrictions could be through creation of barriers to the individual to do something or to being someone. Barriers could be created and imposed on the disabled individual to do something that is physical or economic. Such barriers could also be material barriers such as inaccessibility to buildings, transport, and these by nature will restrict the disabled person from undertaking activities related to the barriers created.
This point is further reinforced by the study carried by Bradbury et al (2001), who reiterate that creation of socio-economic barriers to the disabled members of the society is an impetus to prevalence of apathy and the notion that disabilities are a tragic accident and a mess to the enforcement of socio-economic policies.
Disabilities in Society
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Literature Review
Disabilities in Learning Institutions
Learning disability affects the intelligence quotient of the individual. It is a condition that leads to fall in individual’s intelligence quotient below the normal range. Brain is affected adversely which makes the individual unable to perform very well in various activities. Children with learning disabilities encounter difficulties in sensory information processing which in turn impacts on the ability of the individual to interpret various activities in the learning institution.
Learning disability limits individual ability to see, hear and properly understand what is been imparted to them in school like other normal students. It is important to take care of these persons in order to avoid severe impacts.
Duquette (1998) provides an explorative assessment of the various teaching techniques that should be used in the learning institutions that have students who have learning disabilities. It is imperative to understand the fact that children with learning disabilities are not very attentive, cannot realize their dreams by their own. They have to be assisted to learn various ways of doing things. Learning disabilities generally affect the process of information relay in the nervous system. This affects the way information is received, processed or communicated.
Disabilities in Society
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Allyn and Bacon (2007) posit that instruction intermarried with effectual teaching for students with learning disabilities calls for expert familiarity in the areas of spoken language and reading and proficiency in writing as well as specialized knowledge in handling math. This further calls for evidence based teaching within each area as proposed by Summer (2007).
As an instructor, it is important to realize that there are learning disabilities which encumber learners of average or above-average acumen in easily and reliably processing a range of types of information. For instance learners with dyslexia exhibit a perceptual deficit that scuttles sequences of letters or numbers. For this reason, it would be a big achievement for the teacher to understand how the learning disability exhibits itself and the methods that the student previously used to handle the disability in the past.
The instructor will only gain the knowledge of that if he discusses with student about the issue. In addition, it is vital that the instructor appreciates that learning disabilities do not stem from a learner’s intelligence (Allyn and Bacon 2007). They also don’t result from physical or emotional health of the student; neither are they as a result of the student’s cultural background or socioeconomic circumstances.
It is possible for learning disabilities to exist amid other disabilities. For example learners who have head injuries that are brought about by traumatic accidents may require adjustments (accommodations) similar to those provided to persons with learning disabilities.
Disabilities in Society
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Secondly, as supported by Hartman’s study (2008), there are a number of universal teaching techniques which may be very supportive and helpful in making learners with disabilities experience the necessary comfort in the classroom hence show maximum performance possible. First and foremost, while preparing the syllabus, it is important to incorporate a statement learning disability accommodation.
For instance it would take something like: “If you have a disability and would wish to have specific accommodations, kindly discuss this issue with the professor.” Such a statement would clearly act as an indicator to the students with disabilities that the instructor, mentor, tutor or teacher is at ease to discuss the potential need for accommodations. Additionally, it acts as a fillip to the students by encouraging them to talk about accommodations prior to the actual need for them.
The instructor carries the tool that can create an amicable environment for learning. For this reason, the instructor should inform the students in every meeting of every class about the Centre for Special Services (for students with disabilities), if any. The instructor may also be obliged to discuss privately with the students with learning disabilities more so those that have disclosed their condition and hence go further to ask them how the course could be made a good learning experience for them (Allyn & Bacon 2007).
This would be helpful in bringing confidence in them. Students with disabilities may most likely have a problem with time management. To help them out of this, the instructor should issue sufficient notice concerning due dates for assignments. The students may also find reading and writing to be quite hectic and time-consuming. The instructor should therefore allow for extensions for assignments so that such students do not feel punished for their disabilities.
Disabilities in Society
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It is not only in the classroom that the people with learning disabilities will have problems. Even in examinations and undertaking of assignments. Duquette (1998) advices that the instructor should consider alternate methods for the exams as well as the assignments so that the students with disabilities are permitted to have input into the dialogue about alternate methods (for instance allow for handing in of electronic exams for hard copies).
If the instructor encourages the students to play an active role in the classroom, it would be an impetus to their self- confidence and give them an opportunity to make it evident to others that they are not academically disabled. This would further enhance the student’s own learning (Abbott et al 2004).
For those students with visual impairment, it is appropriate for the instructor to address the particular student with his/her name. Apart from that, the students with visual impairment especially those with low vision should be provided with copies of overheads and board work. For easier follow-up of the lectures by the students, the instructor should allow them to audiotape the lectures. There are names whose spelling may not strictly follow conventions. Such proper names should be spelt out by the instructor for clarity to the students.
Disabilities in Society
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Abbott et al (2004) argue that visual aides may be necessary if the concerned students have hearing impairment (this may call for items like acetates and slides). Secondly, the instructor should make use of a microphone in a large room and understand that while such a student with hearing impairment speech-reads, she or he does not see the instructor’s lips and therefore the instructor should talk while facing the class rather than the chalkboard.
The instructor has a responsibility to extend his or her teaching expertise to the laboratory and in the fieldwork too. To achieve this, the instructor should ensure that when assigning group lab projects, it is done in such a manner that allows every individual of the group to contribute in accordance to individual member abilities. The laboratory equipment should be arranged in a way that makes them accessible to every individual and visible by everyone (Duquette 1998).
According to Summer, (2007), it is very important to employ appropriate teaching technique so as to ensure that students with specific learning disabilities can also get equal learning opportunity. These techniques are applied under different situations. Moreover, Hartman (2008) reiterates that these depend entirely on place where learning process is being carried out such as classroom, laboratory, examinations room and field work as discussed above. The technique to be used is predetermined to ensure efficiency (Hartman, 2008).
When students are in classroom, it is important for the institution to select courses in advance to enable the students with learning disabilities get enough time to translate them to audiotape or large print. The teachers should make syllabus in advance, short assignment sheets so that they can be used by these students (Duquette 1998). The lecturers should give lectures in very supreme way in that they write key phrases and lecture outlines on the overhead projector.
Disabilities in Society
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Disabilities in Society
As Hartman (2008) adds in his paper on student disability paper, when students are going to learn in the laboratory, it is recommendable that the students with learning disability are permitted to take a tour in advance so that they can learn safety concerns so as to avoid injuries. Lab projects should be assigned according to abilities so as to enable all students undertake their projects efficiently and complete in time. The institution should ensure that the lab equipment is arranged in a manner that all students can access all the equipments necessary for learning. Lecturers should give oral or written lab instructions.
Some past studies have recommended that students with learning disabilities should undertake their exams in an environment free of distractions (e.g. Summer 2007 and White et al 2000). The exams should focus on the skills and abilities of each student (Hartman 2008). Students with learning disabilities should be given extra time during the time of examination. Exams should be composed in a way that disabled students can easily access them and that they are clearly typed in large black letters with spaces between lines (Duquette 1998). The items in between should be double or triple spaced so as the students can easily read.
Teachers should be very sensitive to students with learning disabilities who may not be able to read aloud due to certain impairments. Teachers and lecturers have the obligation to discuss ways in which students with learning disabilities can participate in class work upon realizing their deficits.
Some of the most powerful tools that an instructor can develop include respect to the students, positive attitudes, flexibility and acceptance (Summer 2007, and Hartman 2008). In situations where the students are faced with teachers who mistrust them or who are not flexible, they (students) become disheartened and may easily fail to maximize on their performance.
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Disabilities in Society
Attitude towards Disability
Studies have shown that research into the area of disabilities in the society would be meaningless if the studies cannot lead to a quantitative contribution to the subject by creating a positive attitude towards disability and people with disabilities (Connors, 2005, and Hannon, 2010). In the study by Hannon (2010), the author posits that the key to improving the efficacy of the efforts pit into addressing the negative experiences of the disabled people in the society should focus on changing the attitudes to people with disabilities.
Hannon further observes that there have been persistent negative attitudes to disability around the world though the trend is improving with more awareness being put into action and governments as well as other stakeholders investing considerably in the creation of awareness in the area of disabilities in the society.
In another research study, White, Jackson and Gordon (2006) explore the implicit and explicit attitudes toward sportspersons with disabilities and they reiterate that there is a positive relationship between the attitude and the experiences of the athletes with disabilities. Their study further show that the prevalent attitudes, which are negative in nature, provide evidence that the members of the society that have disabilities are not yet fully integrated into the society especially given that they are expressed towards intimate relationships for the individuals with disabilities.
Disabilities in Society
Studies have indicated that more positive attitudes are expected when individuals who have disabilities voluntarily get together with other members of the society who have disabilities. Negative attitudes among the people with disabilities deserves special attention since it is likely to slow progress towards equality when it is the disabled people who have negative attitudes about disability. It means policy making also slows down since the campaigns must target the negative attitudes from the individuals without disabilities and those with disabilities. The campaign is all about the change of the mindset.
The attitudes could be related top employment where barriers have been created to enhance the socially constructed boundaries within the workplaces or the society in general. Appropriate support mechanisms have been explored by Hannon’s study (2010) as a way that can help employers to have positive attitudes towards those with disabilities and disability as a whole. Hannon (2010) argues that if such mechanisms are put in place the welfare of workers that have intellectual and mental health can be improved.
To support this idea by Hannon, Corrigan and Gelb (2006) argue that the welfare of the mentally incapacitated individuals can be improved through the mass approaches that target employers and the society in general through specific group targets.
Disabilities in Society
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Throughout the body of research that has been carried out in the past it is evident that a number of interventions techniques are common for all the authors in the studies. These intervention techniques have been proposed to influence attitude formation in the society and they include direct contact with the members of the society with disabilities and those that do not have disabilities (Connors, 2005, Hannon, 2010 and Blessing et al, 1999).
The study by Blessing et al (1999) specifically mentions legislation and providing support for the participation of the people who have disabilities and they should be encouraged and supported to participate in all spheres of the society. Besides this support, another intervention technique is to ensure that the society is void of any structures of segregation and discrimination against disability or individuals with disabilities.
Encouraging increased political organization and extensive debate and discussion in academic and public realms focusing on disability issues. Since each of the interventions proposed by the studies is targeted to play a particular and vital role in generating positive attitudes to disability in the society, every effort must be made to translate research evidence into actual practice.
Disability and the Right to Full Human Development
All reasonable advances to attaining the full participation of individuals with disabilities incorporate doing away with all the socially constructed obstacles to achieving human potential. These obstacles may take various settings that include environmental, political or psychological constructions. They may also be educational in nature, institutional and social.
Doing away with these barriers provides the people with disabilities with access to the fundamental conditions needed to operate as independent and responsible people. These essential conditions include education, housing, working conditions, impartial and fair remuneration for work, justice, impartiality and the chance to be involved in civic and other socio-cultural aspects in day-to-day life. This has been documented as a proper way of ensuring socio-economic security and social inclusion of the individuals with disabilities.
Disabilities in Society
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Social integration is an important aspect of the human development and this can be facilitated through participation of the individuals with disabilities in physical activities and sports. According to Hannon (2010) social integration of the disabled members of the society through such events as sports and physical activities also helps in bridging the cultural boundaries that create barriers in human interaction and bolsters efforts that aim at overcoming prejudice or discrimination in the society against that have diverse characters.
It is through these social interaction opportunities that the individuals (whether those who have or who don’t have disabilities) can learn social issues such as fair play and teamwork and gain more knowledge on solidarity as a strength. In addition Rosenbaum (2009) while looking at childhood disability and social policies argues that social interactions that involve many members of society coming together help the members of the society to understand and appreciate the needs of the other.
These perspectives echo those taken by O’Toole (2006), who argues that socio-cultural and civic participation are more profound to the aspect of human development than most individuals may just think of culture as a part of going or not going to the movie theater. O’Toole supports the idea of these interactions being important in supporting human development by arguing that sport is essential in improving education while paving the way for more integration between and among members of the society and cultures.
Disabilities in Society
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Material Barriers
The disabled members of the society may be faced with situations that seem to create a social barrier that hinders them from achieving an objective that would help them in fulfilling their fundamental needs in the society (Swain et al 2004). Studies have showed that social barriers have a very restricting aspect and need to be identified to a particular setting of the external social world such as in the employment environment, in educational setting (institutions of learning), transport and housing among other settings.
In their study, Connors and Stalker (2003) focused on the barriers that are restricted to learning institutions environment and came up with four barriers they considered significant in impacting the lives of the disabled students negatively. The researchers noted that lack of access to recreational facilities and clubs is a major barrier more so for teenagers. Another factor that plays a major role as a barrier is the transport difficulties. Scarcity of after-school activities that the disabled in learners can creatively engage in is also a major barrier in the learning environment.
Communication being a major element in human interactions, it also becomes a barrier the disabled individuals do not get the support they need to communicate effectively and this further affects ability to interact hence limiting extent of human social development. Apart from the learning institutions, barriers can also be seen in the employment environment or the workplace (Swain et al 2004).
Practical Application While the government or the society may come up with social policies to address the plight of people with disabilities and their rights, the society is not stagnant but a constantly changing and dynamic that the relevance of a policy may have to be revised from time to time to incorporate some of the realities that come up as these changes in the society are embraced.
The practical application of effective disability policy is impeded by a number of hurdles. Some of these hurdles relates to the working of the social policies while some challenges lie in the implementation. Coming up with a consistent policy goal has been an obstacle to the effectiveness of the social policy programs that address the rights of the individuals with disabilities.
Disabilities in Society
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Prior to the passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act, it was commonly believed and held as wisdom that working-age people who have disabilities were not able to work and therefore not expected to work. The Act however challenged this notion based on a key input from proponents who contended that the chief barrier to employment was the unequal access to jobs and not a worker’s impairment as was commonly construed.
These proponents felt that to say a worker is disabled was to fail o accommodate particular citizens in the society by constructing a social barrier that had multifaceted impact on the society. The impact could be economic, unequal wealth distribution, unequal access to employment that creates huge disparities in income among other factors.
According to the proponents of the ADA, social policies addressing the rights of the disabled in the society had a practical application if everyone is provided equal rights in all spheres of the society because the disability-transfer population would be zero. However, an important and equally disturbing question is whether the disabled members of the society should categorically be expected to work and this question concerns the rights and responsibilities of the disabled people who are of the working-age.
Disabilities in Society
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Social Policy The society is highly dynamic and the first step in having a social policy for disability is the creation of a common understanding of the terms and related terms. By having legal definitions of disability and other terms such as impairment, it creates a common point of reference since the society understands disability very differently from the way the policy documents would put. Therefore, social policy programs have their definitions of disability and these definitions provide boundaries of who is covered under the program.
For instance, Americans with Disabilities Act and Disability Insurance policy both have definitions of disability that allows them to cover a given set of individuals with disabilities. The society’s understanding is different and that is why special efforts must be put into action to ensure negative attitudes to disability are dispelled. For this reason, the government must, from time to time to ascertain that there are measures guaranteeing the social and economic welfare of the disabled members of the society.
Since the advent of the pragmatic social policy and particularly between 1989 and mid 1990 several changes were made that actually showed how disability policy is a changing and dynamic aspect of the society. The government issued three key documents and made other far-reaching proposals targeting the economic welfare of the disabled in the society and their social welfare as well. Nevertheless, the disabled people have not had homogenous reactions to the social policy changes made in past.
For instance, in the United Kingdom, some changes were made in 1990 which aimed at extending the benefits to the disabled people in the UK by proposing to take care of the extra costs of disability and provide other supplementary allowances to the disabled people who work in low-paid work (Hannon 2010). In the same country, there was the caring for peoplepolicy document, which focused on procedures for evaluating “the social care needs of disabled people and the development of care packages set against the background of local authorities’ limited resources” (Hannon 2010).
Disabilities in Society
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In the United States, the rights of the disabled people in the society are protected by the American with Disabilities Act- ADA of 1990. This Act extended civil rights protection for the disabled people against being discriminated against at the place of work and in employment. The passage of the ADA-1990 characterized a clear effort to transform the spotlight of US disability policy further than income transfers for individuals with disabilities who stayed out of the labor market(Oliver 1999).
The focus was rather put on the employment support for people with disabilities who faced disability-related barriers at their places of work that impeded employment. The point underlying this change in focus was that by eliminating disability- related obstacles to employment, people with disabilities would have increased freedom to opt for work over the benefits receipt that disability attracted.
In spite of these efforts, the biggest influence of federal government social policy on individuals with disabilities is still being felt through the Disability Insurance (DI policy) and through Supplemental Security Income (SSI). While the DI is a social insurance plan that targets the regularly employed members of the society who might experience a disability that could entirely prevent them from working and SSI is a categorical welfare plan that offers benefits to those who are completely prevented from working by their disability; both programs were founded under the Social Security Act (1935) even though SSI was created under Title XVI while DI under Title II of the Act.
Disabilities in Society
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Despite the good intention of the social policy programs in addressing the issues that affect the disabled people with respect to employment, there have been some arguments that some evidence indicate that these programs have not had considerable impact on improving the employment opportunities of the individuals living with disabilities (e.g. Burkhauser & Daly 2002). The authors have argued using the 1990s data, which shows that employment rate among people of the working-age, plunged while the benefits rolls and expenditures went up. The authors call this circumstantial evidence nevertheless.
Social policy that targets disability in the US incorporates two main components one of which is the employment protection. The other component comprises transfers. The federal disability transfers are limited only to those individuals who have disabilities that prevent them from functioning in a substantially gainful way. However, ADA (1990) provides a much broader employment protection for those with disabilities and also targets a broader group of individuals with disabilities. It includes even individuals who have the capacity and ability to work in the labor market. The following analysis looks at the social policy in terms of the transfers and employment protection on the basis of the available social policy programs.
DI and SSI
These two policies trace their origins to the 1935 Social Security Act of 1935. The two social policy programs are managed by the Social Security Administration that provides qualifications for eligibility. According to the SSA, “the inability to engage in substantial gainful activity, by reason of a medically determinable physical or mental impairment that is expected to result in death or last at least 12 months” (Social Security Administration, 2000).
Therefore, to qualify for eligibility, an applicant must be impaired such that they cannot in any area that is recognized within the economy and for which hold qualifications with respect to their age, education and experience in the area of work. In addition, the programs only start issuing benefits after a mandatory five–month waiting period. Upon request for application for disability consideration, the officials and the applicant gather sufficient information and then the applicant feels the appropriate form after which the application is passed over to state agency for determination verification of the disability.
The criterion for determining eligibility for disability benefits is homogenous across all the states while the results of the process vary from one state to another. The two programs have different goals even though they share same administration center and eligibility criteria. The object of the Disability Insurance is to offer qualified members with “earnings replacement insurance” when they exit the labor market due to disability. The benefits of this program are provided through a special tax on the payroll and contributed by the employer and the employee.
Disabilities in Society
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Americans with Disabilities Act- ADA
This Act provides a broader definition of disability hence covers a broader set of individuals with disabilities. According to the Act, disability is considered to be any physical or mental impairment that significantly limits an individual or individuals key life activity, a verification of such an impairment, or being considered as having such an impairment. To this effect, Title I of the Act obliges employers to make reasonable considerations to employees with disabilities except where such accommodations would cause unwarranted hardship on the normal operation of business.
Conclusion
The results of this research shows that the reaction of the society towards disabilities and individuals with disabilities plays a major role in determining the success in elimination of the social barriers that are constructed by the same society and which impede the achievement of equity within the workplace, political environment, learning environment, civic and social arena.
The research further established that the effective practical application of the social policies and other social initiatives established by non-governmental institutions depends on the seriousness with which the policies are passed and implemented. For the students and learners with disabilities, most of policy changes that need to be made are explored within the literature with reference to the various studies that have focused on the improvement of the welfare of the students and learners with disabilities. The changes include making accommodations within the curriculum and teaching techniques.
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Reference:
Allyn & Bacon, G. (2007). Contemporary Issue in Curriculum. London: Trade paperback Publisher, 131-167
Bradbury B, Norris K, & Abello D. Socio-economic disadvantage and the prevalence of disability. Social Policy Research Centre. 2001. www.sprc.unsw.edu.au/reports/Report1_01.pdf.
Colver A. (2005). A shared framework and language for childhood disability. Journal ofDevelopmental Medicine Child Neurology, 47(11):780-4.
Connors, C. and Stalker, K (2003) The views and experiences of disabled children and their siblings: a positive outlook. (London, Jessica Kingsley)
Corrigan, P., Gelb, B. (2006) Three Programs That Use Mass Approaches to Challenge the Stigma of Mental Illness. Journal of Psychiatric Services, 57, 393-398
Dowling, M. and Dolan, L. (2001) Disabilities – inequalities and the social model. Journal of Disability & Society, 16 (1), 21-36
Duquette, C., (1998). Teaching Students with Disabilities. Journal of Teaching Technologies 2(3)
Hartman, R. (2008). Disabled Students’ Program. New York (NY): Merrill Trade Publishers
Rosenbaum, P (2009) Childhood disability and social policies. British Medical Journal, 338 (1020)
Summer, C. (2007). Student Disability Programs. Texas: Texas Tech University Press.
Swain, J, French, S, Barnes, Colin & Thomas, C (2004). Disabling Barriers, Enabling Environments. London: Sage Publications
Watson, N., Shakespeare, T., Cunningham-Burley, S., Barnes, C., Corker, M., Davis, J. and Priestley, M. (2000) Life as a disabled child: A qualitative study of young people’s experiences and perspectives: final report to the ESRC,Department of Nursing Studies, University of Edinburgh
White, M.J., Jackson, V., Gordon, P.J. (2006) Implicit and Explicit Attitudes toward Athletes with disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation72 (3) 33-40
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Business Cycle Properties and Macro Forecasting of the Australian Economy
Executive Summary
Business cycle properties and the macro forecasting of the economy of Australia can be appropriately accomplished utilising the necessary parameters or economic indicators. Hence the ability to effectively use these economic indicators facilitates precise and accurate forecasting of the economy. Therefore, these economic indicators have been widely used in the process of forecasting the direction which is likely to be taken by a country’s economy.
In this report seven major economic indicators have been considered to enable forecasting of the Australian economy using judgemental approach. These economic indicators include: inflation rate; private final consumption; inventory investment; gross fixed investment, nominal exchange rate between Australia and the United States; unemployment rate as well as labour productivity. The utilisation of these economic indicators has played a significant role to facilitate forecasting of the Australian economy through their keen evaluation and detrending. Analysis Australian Economy
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Introduction
Conducting effective analysis of economic indicators of any country is one of the most appropriate ways of forecasting the future performance of such economy. This approach has often been used to predict the expected performance of the Australian economy in future for quite some time (Fisher, Otto and Voss, 1996). Hence the practice of utilising business cycle properties in the forecasting of the economy in Australia is widespread.
In particular, three approaches are essentially used in the forecasting of a country’s macroeconomics such as: judgemental forecasting, statistical forecasting, and model forecasting. However, judgemental forecasting which is going to be used in this report analysis involves gathering various kinds of data and information from official sources, to aid future macroeconomic forecasting activity on the basis of one’s informal judgement concerning the way in a country’s economy works (Evans, 2009).
Analysis Australian Economy
However, there are certain properties of business cycles which enable them to be effectively used in combination with other economic indicators in the forecasting of the economy (Evans, 2009). For instance, the business cycle properties used in facilitating the forecasting of the Australian economy include: aggregate economic activity fluctuations; business cycles are not periodic but recurrent; business cycles contraction/recession and expansion/boom meaning they have a trough and a peak both of which act as the turning points; business cycles are indicative of economic activity persistence and also business cycles have comovements of many macro variables (Edey, 5).
Thus, the significance of conducting this empirical analysis of the Australian economy is to reiterate the fact that as an economist whether in the government or private sector, often analysis of economic information, data and policies will be inevitable in order to enable the process of making informed managerial or economic decisions (Fisher, Otto and Voss, 1996).
Therefore, this report will specifically consider certain economic indicators as means of forecasting Australian economy such as inflation rate, private final consumption, inventory investment, gross fixed investment, nominal exchange rate between Australia and the United States, unemployment rate and labour productivity.
Analysis
Inflation rate
Analysis Australian Economy
Table 1: Analytical measures of consumer price inflation (CPI)
Quarterly
The rate of quarterly consumer price inflation (CPI)
Mar 1996
0.4
Jun 1996
0.7
Sep 1996
0.3
Dec 1996
0.2
Mar 1997
0.2
Jun 1997
-0.3
Sep 1997
-0.4
Dec 1997
0.3
Mar 1998
0.3
Jun 1998
0.6
Sep 1998
0.2
Dec 1998
0.5
Mar 1999
-0.1
Jun 1999
0.4
Sep 1999
0.9
Dec 1999
0.8
Mar 2000
3.8
Jun 2000
3.7
Sep 2000
0.3
Dec 2000
1.1
Mar 2001
0.8
Jun 2001
0.3
Sep 2001
0.9
Dec 2001
0.9
Mar 2002
0.7
Jun 2002
0.7
Sep 2002
1.3
Dec 2002
0.0
Mar 2003
0.6
Jun 2003
0.5
Sep 2003
0.9
Dec 2003
0.5
Mar 2004
0.9
Jun 2004
0.5
Sep 2004
0.4
Dec 2004
0.8
Mar 2005
0.7
Jun 2005
0.6
Sep 2005
0.9
Dec 2005
0.5
Mar 2006
0.9
Jun 2006
1.6
Sep 2006
0.9
Dec 2006
-0.1
Mar 2007
0.1
Jun 2007
1.2
Sep 2007
-0.3
Dec 2007
0.1
Mar 2008
0.5
Jun 2008
1.0
Sep 2008
0.5
Dec 2008
0.9
Mar 2009
0.6
Jun 2009
0.7
Sep 2009
0.4
Dec 2009
1.6
Mar 2010
0.9
Jun 2010
0.6
Sep 2010
0.0
Dec 2010
0.1
Mar 2011
0.5
Jun 2011
0.9
Sep 2011
0.6
Dec 2011
0.0
Mar 2012
0.1
Jun 2012
0.5
Sep 2012
0.4
Source: The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
Inventory investment
Inventory investment in the business cycle refers to the inventories as all materials such as finished goods that are business owned and work in progress, whether at business locations or elsewhere. The business holds these items anticipating selling a product. However, inventory investment is usually regarded as an additional contribution to GDP. Fluctuations in inventories which an often phenomenon plays a significant role in the amplification and exacerbation of the business cycle as well as continuing to significantly affect GDP growth negatively at times of economic downturn (Evans, 2009).
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Gross fixed investment
Gross fixed investment involves the entry records totalling to business spending based on fixed assets, such as machinery, factories, dwellings, equipment and raw materials inventories, which are essential in providing the basis for production in future (Evans, 2009). Therefore, gross fixed investment is measured gross asset’s depreciation including investment that is necessary as a mere replacement of scrapped or worn-out capital.
Table 2: Gross fixed investment rate and percentage
Year
Investment
Per cent Change
1996
24.318
-1.91 %
1996
24.318
0.00 %
1997
23.855
-1.90 %
1997
23.855
0.00 %
1998
25.98
8.91 %
1998
25.98
0.00 %
1999
26.129
0.57 %
1999
26.129
0.00 %
2000
24.803
-5.07 %
2000
24.803
0.00 %
2001
23.19
-6.50 %
2001
23.19
0.00 %
2002
24.825
7.05 %
2002
24.825
0.00 %
2003
26.618
7.22 %
2003
26.618
0.00 %
2004
27.038
1.58 %
2004
27.038
0.00 %
2005
27.855
3.02 %
2005
27.855
0.00 %
2006
27.549
-1.10 %
2006
27.549
0.00 %
2007
29.259
6.21 %
2007
29.259
0.00 %
2008
29.541
0.96 %
2008
29.541
0.00 %
2009
27.853
-5.71 %
2009
27.853
0.00 %
2010
27.592
-0.94 %
2010
27.592
0.00 %
Source: The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
Nominal exchange rate between Australia and the United States dollar
The nominal exchange rate is the value at which a currency of one country exchanges with that of the other country. For instance the nominal exchange rate between the Australian and United States dollar is the value at which the Australian dollar exchanges with that of the United States. The nominal exchange is an economic indicator because it implies the strength of the local currency against other global currencies.
The higher the demand of the local currency, the higher the value meaning the economy is stronger. As shown in the table below outlining the quarterly exchange rates between the Australian and United States dollar from the year 1996 to present it is evident that there is significant variation even though there is a gradual progressive decline in the value of the Australian dollar against the united stated dollar. This may imply a weakening of the Australian economy against that of the United States.
Table 3: Exchange rate between Australian dollar and the US dollar
Quarterly
Exchange rate between Australian dollar and the US dollar
Mar 1996
0.7793
Jun 1996
0.7890
Sep 1996
0.7924
Dec 1996
0.7965
Mar 1997
0.7865
Jun 1997
0.7455
Sep 1997
0.7198
Dec 1997
0.6527
Mar 1998
0.6634
Jun 1998
0.6135
Sep 1998
0.5945
Dec 1998
0.6139
Mar 1999
0.6293
Jun 1999
0.6596
Sep 1999
0.6536
Dec 1999
0.6538
Mar 2000
0.6055
Jun 2000
0.5986
Sep 2000
0.5433
Dec 2000
0.5540
Mar 2001
0.4890
Jun 2001
0.5075
Sep 2001
0.4923
Dec 2001
0.5106
Mar 2002
0.5316
Jun 2002
0.5648
Sep 2002
0.5435
Dec 2002
0.5662
Mar 2003
0.6036
Jun 2003
0.6674
Sep 2003
0.6801
Dec 2003
0.7500
Mar 2004
0.7589
Jun 2004
0.6889
Sep 2004
0.7147
Dec 2004
0.7790
Mar 2005
0.7719
Jun 2005
0.7636
Sep 2005
0.7615
Dec 2005
0.7337
Mar 2006
0.7159
Jun 2006
0.7433
Sep 2006
0.7480
Dec 2006
0.7913
Mar 2007
0.8070
Jun 2007
0.8487
Sep 2007
0.8827
Dec 2007
0.8816
Mar 2008
0.9180
Jun 2008
0.9626
Sep 2008
0.7996
Dec 2008
0.6928
Mar 2009
0.6873
Jun 2009
0.8114
Sep 2009
0.8801
Dec 2009
0.8969
Mar 2010
0.9159
Jun 2010
0.8523
Sep 2010
0.9667
Dec 2010
1.0163
Mar 2011
1.0334
Jun 2011
1.0739
Sep 2011
0.9781
Dec 2011
1.0156
Mar 2012
1.0402
Jun 2012
1.0191
Sep 2012
1.0404
Source: Reserve Bank of Australia
Unemployment rate
The Australia’s unemployment rate which can be seasonally adjusted increased to 5.4 per cent in September, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) results that were released on October 11. However, there has also not been a widespread unemployment rate in Australia and as ABS reports in September there was an increase in the number of people employed from 14,500 to 11,511,900 as a result of full-time employment increase.
Moreover, there was also an increased in the unemployed people by 38,800 in September only. Therefore, the ABS monthly aggregate of the number of hours worked, it is evident that a considerable number of hours are used at work at work places in both part time and full time employment places. In addition, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) the labour fore participation rate which can be seasonally adjusted increased to 65.2 per cent in the month of September.
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Table 4: Australia unemployment rate
Quarterly
Australia unemployment rate
Mar 1996
8.2
Jun 1996
8
Sep 1996
8.3
Dec 1996
8.4
Mar 1997
8.4
Jun 1997
8.2
Sep 1997
8.1
Dec 1997
7.9
Mar 1998
7.9
Jun 1998
7.7
Sep 1998
7.3
Dec 1998
7.1
Mar 1999
6.7
Jun 1999
7
Sep 1999
6.5
Dec 1999
6.6
Mar 2000
6.2
Jun 2000
6
Sep 2000
6.3
Dec 2000
6.5
Mar 2001
6.9
Jun 2001
6.8
Sep 2001
7
Dec 2001
6.4
Mar 2002
6.5
Jun 2002
6.3
Sep 2002
6.2
Dec 2002
6.1
Mar 2003
6.1
Jun 2003
5.8
Sep 2003
5.5
Dec 2003
5.4
Mar 2004
5.5
Jun 2004
5.4
Sep 2004
5.1
Dec 2004
5.2
Mar 2005
5
Jun 2005
5.1
Sep 2005
5.1
Dec 2005
4.9
Mar 2006
4.8
Jun 2006
4.7
Sep 2006
4.6
Dec 2006
4.4
Mar 2007
4.3
Jun 2007
4.2
Sep 2007
4.2
Dec 2007
4.1
Mar 2008
4.2
Jun 2008
4.3
Sep 2008
4.6
Dec 2008
5.7
Mar 2009
5.8
Jun 2009
5.7
Sep 2009
5.3
Dec 2009
5.4
Mar 2010
5.1
Jun 2010
5.1
Sep 2010
4.9
Dec 2010
4.9
Mar 2011
4.9
Jun 2011
5.2
Sep 2011
5.1
Dec 2011
5.2
Mar 2012
5.1
Jun 2012
5.1
Sep 2012
5.4
Source: Reserve Bank of Australia
Labour productivity
Improved labour productivity usually leads to a strong gross domestic product (GDP) result. For instance, in the second quarter of 2011 there was a tremendous increase in the labour productivity in Australia by 1.5% leading to an adjustment of the inflation. Thus labour productivity can be described as generated output in a single hour of work which is being undertaken.
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According to Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) from which the data used to generate graph below was obtained the month of June 2011 recorded a tremendous fell of national labour productivity which represented the second worst annual performance of the labour productivity since the year 1996. A high labour productivity implies increased production at reduced cost a phenomenon which is very appropriate for the economy growth.
Private final consumption
Private financial consumption and especially the private financial consumption expenditure have been widely used as an essential economy indicator. Thus, it can be used in forecasting where the economy is headed.
Table 4: Private consumption expenditure volume index in Australia
Period
Private consumption expenditure volume index in Australia
2005-06
122.3
2006-07
127.2
2007-08
131.9
Seasonally adjusted
2006-2007DecemberMachJune
126.9
128.3
129.0
2007-2008SeptemberDecemberMarch
130.4
132.0
132.7
2008-2009JuneSeptemberDecember
132.5
132.6
132.7
Source: The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
Conclusion
In conclusion, the business cycle properties in addition to the judgemental forecasting approach utilised in this report can be effectively used to predict the future economy performance in a precise manner.
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Internet like a native language
Manifestation of Age Disparity on Internet Absorption Differences
That people born since 1991 are not like their elders is more evident in the way they use internet for communication, socialising and even in ecommerce compared to their parents’ generation. Although the manifestations of this trend are very evident today, the next 10 years are going to be explosive in terms of what this generation will be able to exploit the internet like a native language.
Internet like a native language
One of the key manifestations will be the time spent on internet, it will not only fashionable for that generation to use internet enabled phones but it is indispensable as well. The peer pressure, the desire to be seen as trendy and up to date and the social media frenzy are just some of the reasons for the big amounts the generation spends online[1].
In addition, the younger generation will tend to take up careers that are internet related such as e-commerce since they will find them easy compared to their elders. In addition to the fact that most work places are using internet integrated systems, even the system of education in the colleges and schools they will attend will be based on e-learning, something which will leave them with no other option other than just remaining relevant and up to speed with the internet dependent lives.
Internet like a native language
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Health Record Policies
Evaluate the two policies in the attached “Health Record Policies” by doing the following:
Discuss what information should be included in an addendum pertaining to a shadow chart.
Generally, an addendum includes amendments or corrections in the primary medical records.This must bear the client’s signature, the amendment date and the amendments themselves. This avails the information that was missing at time of original entry.
Discuss how information technology staff can help decrease incidents of security breaches.
Security breaches especially related to data cause negative consequences for healthcare institutions, their clients and employees. The information technology staff should take preventive measures to avoid this. Encrypting confidential data is essential. All computers in the organization must have password protection. Also a backup of all data must be kept to avoid loss of data in case of data loss.
Thirdly, controls must be placed on data access and storage to avoid unauthorized access. Disposal of outdated data and equipment should be done carefully, and there should be regulation on use of laptops and other portable storage media and devices (Pendrak & Ericson, 1998).
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Discuss one situation from Montana Code 41-1-402 (2a through 2d) that may result in criminal liability to the organization if not followed.
A situation that may result in criminal liability for a healthcare institution is if for example an abortion is procured on a minor from a stable family and under the care of her parents without the parent’s consent.
Summarize how HIPAA defines criminal liability.
HIPAA has put a penalty for any unauthorized access to a patient’s medical records with or without knowledge of this law. Employees in healthcare institutions can also be charged with breaching the confidentiality of patients without authority to do so. Explain which part of 2a through 2d of Montana Code 41-1-402 would directly impact actions of clinical staff. Part 2 (d) would impact actions of the clinician. If a minor needs treatment for STDs, drug and substance abuse, then if the clinician accepts to offer treatment, they are also mandated to offer counseling the minor or refer them to a counselor.
Health Record Policies
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Discuss one situation from Montana Code 50-16-603x (1 through 7) specific to health record identification that may result in a legal claim against the organization if not followed.
If a healthcare institution uses pictures of their former patients for its advertisement on the media without written consent from the former clients. Develop a confidentiality policy statement (suggested length of 1–2 sentences) using either Montana Code 41-1-402 or Montana Code 50-16-603.
Disclosure of a patient’s presence: This should not be disclosed to unauthorized parties, even in a manner that would reveal nature of disease without the consent of the patient as it will be a breach of confidentiality.
Compare three points in the Montana codes to HIPAA laws as they refer to release of information.
50-16-542. 1(a) Release of information will be denied if the healthcare provider thinks it will cause negative effects on the recipient. 50-16-542. 1(c) if the information will cause danger to the recipient’s safety and 50-16-542. 2(a) if the minor has a mental condition. All these show that information can only be released if it will not cause any adverse effects on the patient.
Health Record Policies
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Develop a release of information policy statement (suggested length of 1–2 sentences) using either Montana Code 50-16-541 or Montana Code 50-16-542 for a policy book.
Releasing information of patient over the phone of fax: This is not encouraged as the there is no evidence provided to show that the caller or fax destination are eligible recipients of the patient information.
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VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS
The Victorian equal employment opportunity law stipulates volunteers’ rights. The law states that, volunteers in not for profit and non-governmental organizations should have equal protection against harassment and damages as the other paid employees. Volunteers are important recourses for NGOs and NFP organizations. Most of these charitable organizations are run and managed by volunteers (Taylor, 2011).
They offer their services free of charge to the organizations that deliver charitable programs to disadvantaged countries and communities. They have no interest in financial compensation. Most of them derive personal satisfaction from offering their services free of charge to charitable organizations. The importance of volunteers is attached to their contribution towards achieving an organization’s mission and objectives. According to Ralph (2006), qualified volunteers should be retained through motivation. They can be encouraged by training incentives and rewards.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS
Volunteers are very important resources for NFP and NGO’s. They are expected to deliver their services like the other employees. They are not entitled to any payment by the organization. There services are considered to be of good faith and charitable (Farmer & Fredor 1999). The fact that they are not entitled to monetary compensation, does not oblige inefficiency and lack of commitment. They work voluntarily, they cannot be forced to work, they can stop their services any time and the organization can dismiss them any time.
Volunteers should be willing to learn and train in order to acquire the necessary skills and qualification required in the organization. Choudhory (2010) found out that, most of them have different professional backgrounds that may not correspond to the nature of the organizations work. They should be flexible to acquire appropriate skills and experiences that are necessary through training.
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Taylor (2001) states that, volunteers do not have tenure of employment and when unproductive they are dismissed by the organization. The organizations objectives should be achieved through volunteers who should be willing and are committed to provide their services to the respective organization. They should be flexible in delivering their duties, some organizations work in risky and hardship areas, these calls for volunteer resilience and endurance.
Volunteers should be productive, efficient and motivated in carrying out their duties. Transparency and accountability is an important aspect in volunteering, they should be able deliver their services in a diligent and honest manner (Boraas, 2003).
Agreements between the volunteers and the organizations are not legally binding. The organization is not obligated to act in accordance to the volunteers’ specifications and the volunteers have no legal obligations with the organization. However, some organizations provide insurance cover for the volunteers, such covers shield against work related injuries and liabilities. In an occurrence of losses or damages, such organizations are liable to cover for the respective damages.
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According to Vitner & Yodfat (2008), organizations may award volunteers minimal payments as incentives but the organization is free from obligations. They can be entitled for allowances, rewards and should be reimbursed for their out of pocket expenses. They can also receive non monetary benefits like free air tickets and free access to services provided by the organization. Volunteers are entitled to work in good working conditions and in safe environments like the other paid employees. The equal opportunity Act protects their rights.
These charitable organizations have their responsibilities to fulfill. Qualified volunteers with proper skills, experiences and interests should be recruited so as to reduce turnover rates. The organization should provide proper training and orientation to volunteers. Proper induction facilitation should be enhanced so as to enable volunteers to work towards achieving organizational objectives.
RECRUITMENT OF VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS
Non for Profit and Non governmental Organizations have significant intentions of attracting and recruiting qualified volunteers. In order to establish long- term productivity and relationship between the volunteers and the organization, volunteers should have appropriate skills, interests and qualities that correspond with the objectives and mission of the organization.
Attracting and recruiting volunteers with these characteristics, ensures good performance, such volunteers have high chances of being retained. Once qualified volunteers have been recruited, it is important to specify and delegate duties, responsibilities, expectations and tasks between the organization and the volunteers.
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Recruitment of volunteers depend on the organizations specifications regarding skills and competences. Background checks are also considered during recruitment. Background checks vary in accordance with the nature of the work the volunteer will be entitled. Volunteers working with children, elderly and disabled individuals should have distinct background check. The nature of the organization should correspond with the background checks.
It was established by Bruney (1999) that during recruitment, a written agreement is not necessary. However an agreement stipulating the roles and responsibilities is initiated between the organization and the volunteers. These will help to resolve any disputes concerning obligations between the volunteer and the organization. An organization should not take anyone as a volunteer if it believes he is incompetent and cannot perform the required tasks.
A volunteer may take action against the organization if he is discriminated in respect to personal characteristics. The Victorian Equal opportunity and Human rights commission stipulate laws that protect the volunteers against discrimination.
TRAINING VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS
Training of volunteers is very important in ensuring efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery. Most volunteers do not have a background of professionalism in their assigned line of duties. Training is necessary towards achieving important organizational objectives. The aims of training volunteers include; maintaining long term motivation and orientation of duties and responsibilities to the volunteers. Volunteers are equipped with tools, experiences and exposure in their line of duty, further more leadership lessons and skills are facilitated through training (Courtney 2001).
Training volunteers is an aspect of supporting, attracting, rewarding and retaining volunteers. It enhances improvement in performance and quality in service delivery. Volunteers from different backgrounds with diverse needs and duties are catered for through training and proper orientation. Companies that train their volunteers attract potential volunteers; this is because motivation is provided through training and careers development. An organization that trains its volunteers is committed to supports its volunteer’s welfare and needs for career development.
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According to Johnson (2007), volunteer training involves either formal or informal training. The training is administered through out the volunteers’ lifecycle. Informal training involves induction programs while formal training involves college training for a specific period of time. Organizations train their volunteers according to their specific needs. Important aspects to be included in training include, determining the training needs, establishing the training objectives, designing, implementing and evaluating the training program.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMFOR VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS
A training program should be designed according to the organizations’ needs. Important aspects to be considered when designing training program include, determining the type of training to be administered, identifying the facilitators, determining the content of the program, sourcing for the appropriate materials and determining the setting through which the training will be facilitated. Settings for training may include, on job training, classroom or in the field training (Zullo, 2011).
Individual volunteer needs should be considered when designing training programs. Suitable training should be administered to different groups of people. Younger and older volunteers should be trained differently according to their needs and duties. Volunteer’s diverse cultural settings should also be considered (Nagbhushanam & Sridhar, 2010).
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Implementation of the training is the most important stage of volunteer training. The training contents should be appropriate and to be delivered effectively. Facilitation and coordination of the training is very important because it determines the outcome of the program. The success or failure of the program will be determined by carrying out an evaluation on the effectiveness of the program.
Evaluation questionnaires are usually used to collect feedback from the program participants. Criticisms, suggestions and proposals are obtained from the evaluation. According to Thomas (2007), criticisms from the participants can be used for continuous improvement in future trainings. A strategy can be formulated from the strengths and weaknesses established from the program.
It was observed by Allhyari (2000) that, evaluation should be carried out to determine if the volunteer target competency was achieved. It is very important in determining the effectiveness and reliability of the program. Volunteer training should be an on-going process. Volunteer’s skills and competencies should be frequently updated to suit the rising needs of the organization. Through training volunteers will be able to achieve career development and leadership skills.
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MOTIVATION AND RETENTION OF VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS
Not for Profit and Non-governmental organizations should develop strategies that will enable them retain and motivate their volunteers. The success of such organizations highly depends on the workforce which majorly constitutes the volunteers. Many NFP and NGO’s have experienced a significant percentage in losing volunteers. This emerging trend has necessitated the need for motivation, so as to retain volunteers. Elshaug & Metzer (2001) established that, most volunteers serve briefly in their respective organizations.
Such organizations fail to provide sufficient motivation to retain the volunteers. Recent studies show that older volunteers most likely serve longer than younger volunteers. The younger volunteers have 20% lower retention rates than adult volunteers. The retention rate in adults is high up to 69.9%.
Various organizations employ different motivation strategies. It has been established that proper recruitment and motivation strategies leads to successful strategies for retention. Retention is affected by barriers and factors which discourage or encourage volunteers. Major barriers that discourage volunteers include risky and costly nature of their work, lack of appropriate skills and experience, insufficient time, poor working conditions, poor reward systems and lack of personal and career development (Odenheirmer, 2011).
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Volunteer retention can be achieved through various strategies. Frequent training is a strategy that motivates volunteers. Their personal and career development needs are enhanced through training. Another strategy to ensure volunteer retention relates to attraction and recruitment strategies, the recruitment process directly relates to retention. Recruiting interested and qualified volunteers improves the retention rates. Other important factors that contribute to volunteer retention include proper skills experience and qualifications, improved reward system, flexibility, recognition, leadership roles and career development.
Low volunteer retention is a vital problem that such organizations face. High rates of volunteer turnover affect the capabilities of these organizations in service delivery. In order for these organizations to achieve their missions and goals volunteer retention must be achieved. Proper working relationships should be enhanced between the volunteers and the organization (Ralph, 2006).
VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS: VOLUNTEERING AND ITS BENEFITS
Vitner & Yodfat (2008) argued that, despite the current trend of low volunteer retention rates, enormous benefits can be derived from volunteering. Individuals are able to acquire more skills and career development through volunteering. One of the greatest benefits of volunteering is the impact it creates on the community. Charitable services and activities offered by NFP and NGO’s are aimed at improving the status of the community. Most of these organizations’ activities address social and development needs in the community. The disadvantaged countries and poor nations are the major targets of these organizations.
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Volunteers are able to expand their social skills, make friends and create networks through wide interactions with the communities. Some individuals derive personal fulfillment and satisfaction through community service. These individuals attach themselves to the society and are determined to impact positively on the society. Such individuals desire to give back and may commit their own resources to improve the community. Recognition and appreciation in the community provides personal satisfaction (Zullo, 2011).
Career development is enhanced through volunteering. Individuals are able to acquire important work place skills such as problem solving skills, teamwork, project management and task management through voluntary exposures. Individuals with these qualities have high employability rates and a competitive advantage in career development. Professional experience is acquired through volunteering. Such experiences are useful in acquiring long-term professional career. Furthermore, volunteering may lead to a well paying job in similar organizations.
VOLUNTEERS IN NFP AND NGOS: BARRIERS TO VOLUNTEERING
Recent studies show that voluntary services have declined drastically. The perception that volunteering is charitable and has no monetary benefits has prevented individuals from volunteering their services in charitable organizations. The most significant barrier against volunteering is lack of time. Individuals who could be willing to volunteer are committed in their families or in other activities (Boraas, 2003). The notion that volunteering requires a long-term commitment is another challenge. However, most individuals dismiss voluntary work because it has no monetary benefits.
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Economic conditions and needs have severely affected voluntary work. Voluntary work has no monetary benefits yet economic conditions are worsening. There is high demand for money, which dictates the preference for individuals to work in paying institutions. The impact of economic changes has forced employees to multi-task with various employers. Such employees hardly find time to volunteer in charitable organizations.
Voluntary work is associated with lots of risks and costs. Some organizations work in hardship and risky areas. Volunteers are exposed to risks of injury, death, financial loss or legal action. These risks discourage potential volunteers from joining charitable organizations. Thomas (2007) observed that, technological advancement has impacted on voluntary work. Potential young volunteers spend most of their time operating gadgets. They prefer to try out new things and very entrepreneurial. The young generation lack commitment in voluntary work because it is very involving and have no substantial benefits.
Odenheirmer (2011) suggest that, charitable organizations should implement strategies to reduce the barriers to volunteering. Organizations should reimburse volunteers out of pocket expenses and should be able to provide incentives such as transport allowances among other incentives. Allocating roles according to individual’s preferences and interests is another strategy.
Adequate training and support should be provided to volunteers as well as their needs should be considered. In the case of organizations administering charity in risky areas, insurance covers should be secured for volunteers. The covers will shield against any losses and damages that may arise due to the nature of the work.
Charitable organizations should initiate programs that will facilitate successful volunteers to be absorbed in to long-term career opportunities. This strategy is very effective in attracting and retaining volunteers. They will be able to gain professional experience in their line of careers giving them competitive advantage as compared to the other potential recruits.
This strategy addresses their long- term objective of professionalism and career development. Organizations that implement these strategies are advantaged in volunteer retention. When volunteers are motivated and satisfied, the retention rates will be high (Courtney, 2001).
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In conclusion, volunteers are very important resources in the community. They constitute the major work force in charitable organizations. The fact that they are not entitled to any monetary benefits does not authorize any neglect, mishandling, harassment and frustrations on the volunteers. Organizations should adopt appropriate attraction and recruitment strategies in order to draw many volunteers. Proper motivation and retention strategies should be employed to reduce volunteer turnover rates.
REFERENCES
Allahyari, R. A. (2000). Visions of charity: Volunteer workers and moral community. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Boraas, S. (2003). Volunteerism in the United States. Monthly Labor Review, 126(8), 3-21
Brudney, J. L. (1999). The effective use of volunteers: Best practices for the public sector. Law and Contemporary Problems, 62(4), 219.
Choudhury, E. (2010). Attracting and managing volunteers in local government. The Journal of Management Development, 29(6), 592-603. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621711011046558
Courtney, R. (2001). Strategic management for voluntary nonprofit organizations. New York: Routledge.
Elshaug, C., & Metzer, J. (2001). Personality attributes of volunteers and paid workers engaged in similar occupational tasks. The Journal of Social Psychology, 141(6), 752-63. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/199837239?accountid=45049;
Farmer, S.M., & Fedor, D.B. (1999). Volunteer participation and withdrawal. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 9(4), 349-368.
Johnson, J. A. (2007). Getting and staying involved: What motivates volunteers in a non-profit organization? Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , 111-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304720694?accountid=45049;
Nagabhushanam, M., & Sridhar, M. (2010). Voluntary Organizations – Growth, Trends and Challenges. Vilakshan: The XIMB Journal of Management, 7(2), 143-166.
Odenheimer, M. (2011). Integrating Volunteers In- to Long-Term Sustainable Development. Journal Of Jewish Communal Service, 87(1/2), 81-87.
Ralph, C. (2006) “Recognising current competencies of volunteers in emergency service organisations”, Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 18 Iss: 7/8, pp.451 – 463
Thomas, C., Newell, J. N., Baral, S. C., & Byanjankar, L. (2007). The contribution of volunteers to a successful community-orientated tuberculosis treatment centre in an urban setting in nepal. Journal of Health Organization and Management, 21(6), 554-72. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14777260710834346
Vitner, G., Shalom, V., & Yodfat, A. (2008). Training volunteers for the elderly in israel. Industrial and Commercial Training, 40(4), 216-225. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197850810876271
Zullo, R. (2011). Labor unions and charity. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 64(4), 699-711.
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