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Entrepreneurial Marketing
Jones, R., & Rowley, J. (2011). Entrepreneurial marketing in small businesses: A conceptual exploration. International Small Business Journal, 21(1): 25-36
This is the article which has made a substantial contribution to my enjoyment and understanding of entrepreneurial marketing. I chose this article as it recommends further development of the notion of entrepreneurial marketing toward the notion of entrepreneurial marketing orientation. The authors draw on the previous research and scales in the entrepreneurial orientation, customer orientation, market orientation, and innovation orientation literatures to propose a conceptual model for entrepreneurial marketing which identifies the elements of such a model, alongside particular signs of the overlap between scales in the dissimilar areas (Jones & Rowley, 2011).
According to this model, marketing in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises is interlinked with other behaviours and activities within the small business. The new conceptual model states that to understand marketing in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, it is important to understand its context particularly relative to customer engagement, innovation as well as entrepreneurial approaches to marketing (Jones & Rowley, 2011). For this reason, the selected article has made a substantial contribution to the entrepreneurial marketing concept and has been very enlightening to me.
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The key themes include entrepreneurial marketing, importance of small businesses to a country’s economy, and entrepreneurial marketing orientation. An acknowledgment of the importance of the interaction between marketing and entrepreneurship has resulted in the proposal of the notion of entrepreneurship marketing. The key messages of this article pertain to further exploration and development of the notion of entrepreneurial marketing.
The authors point out that the concept of entrepreneurial marketing is especially vital to the context of small business (Jones & Rowley, 2011). The authors of this article suggest that the entrepreneurial marketing paradigm has to be advanced to incorporate an approach to marketing which is grounded not just in the knowledge bases of marketing, but also of entrepreneurship, innovation, as well as customer relationships and engagement.
The authors particularly argue for the inclusion of the concept of customer orientation as a separate and distinctive aspect of entrepreneurial marketing instead of this concept being included under market orientation (Jones & Rowley, 2011).
The argument that Jones and Rowley (2011) make is well balanced since it is objective, reasonable, and sensible. To evaluate their argument in the context of the wider literature, other researchers have been cited adequately and properly throughout the article. In the section of the article titled Reviewing the orientation literature, Rowley and Jones (2011) have summarized and conceptualized previous work on entrepreneurial orientation, customer orientation, market orientation, and innovation orientation scales with respect to Small and Medium-sized Enterprises.
Additionally, the scales which were utilized in informing the elements in the proposed Entrepreneurial Marketing Orientation model are identified and discussed in an exhaustive manner, citing various authors. For instance, they have pointed out that market orientation is recognized extensively as having a positive effect on the performance of businesses (Narver & Slater, 2010; Deshpande, 2010). As a result of their validity, reliability and robustness, the MARKOR Scale which was developed by Kohli, Jaworski and Kumar (2011) and the Narver and Slater’s (2010) market orientation scale are utilized in the market orientation component of the proposed Entrepreneurial Marketing orientation.
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The notion of customer orientation is considered by some authors as the pillar of marketing (Jaworski & Kohli, 2010). The marketing advantage of a small company is precisely connected to the close correlations between the clients and the entrepreneur unlike in bigger companies in which it is somewhat harder to embed entrepreneurship and a customer orientation into its organizational culture (Zontanos & Anderson, 2010).
The authors of the selected article also point out that investigation of entrepreneurial orientation pertaining to research in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises includes the investigation of technological posture, market focus and entrepreneurial orientation by Salavou and Lioukas (2011). Additionally, Kreiser, Marino & Weaver (2010) suggest that research on entrepreneurial orientation has to include pro-activeness, risk taking, innovation and culture. The scales developed by Matsuno, Mentzer and Özsomer (2011) and the one developed by Knight (2010) are a reflection of the consensus viewpoint of the entrepreneurial orientation literature preferring valid and reliable orientation scales.
Thanks to the strong focus on innovation as an output and not as a firm behaviour, there are few innovation orientation measures to draw upon. The innovation orientation scale developed by Siguaw, Simpson and Enz (2010) is suitable for Jones and Rowley’s entrepreneurial marketing orientation model. Dimensions derived from this scale which are included into Jones and Rowley’s entrepreneurial marketing orientation model are as follows: stimulating, encouraging and sustaining innovation; and overarching knowledge infrastructure (Siguaw, Simpson & Enz, 2010).
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As clearly shown above, the authors that are cited by Jones and Rowley in their article say a lot about scales in the entrepreneurial orientation, customer orientation, market orientation, and innovation orientation. On the whole, what is important in this article is that the authors have integrated discussion of entrepreneurial marketing activities in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises into the broader conceptual basis and frameworks of the field of small businesses and have also proposed a new model for entrepreneurial marketing orientation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, in practice, this article can help an SME to perform better in that it encourages SMEs to embrace and integrate the themes of entrepreneurial orientation, customer orientation, market orientation, and innovation orientation in the developing paradigm of entrepreneurial marketing. The SME firms should acknowledge that these orientations interact and operate dynamically depending on the market sector, size of the company, as well as development stage.
Jaworski, B. J & Kohli, A. K. (2010). Market orientation: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Marketing, 57(3): 53–70.
Jones, R., & Rowley, J. (2011). Entrepreneurial marketing in small businesses: A conceptual exploration. International Small Business Journal, 21(1): 25-36
Kohli, A. K., Jaworski, B. J & Kumar, A. (2011). MARKOR: A measure of market orientation. Journal of Marketing Research, 30(4): 467–477.
Kreiser, P., Marino, L. D & Weaver, K. M (2010). Assessing the psychometric properties of the entrepreneurial scale: A multi-country analysis. Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice, 26(4): 71–94.
Matsuno, K., Mentzer, J. T & Özsomer, A. (2011). The effects of entrepreneurial proclivity on business performance. Journal of Marketing, 66(3): 18–32.
Narver, J. C & Slater, S. F (2010). The effect of a market orientation on business profitability. Journal of Marketing, 54: 20–35.
Salavou, H & Lioukas, S. (2011). Radical product innovations in SMEs: The dominance of entrepreneurial innovation. Creativity and Innovation Management, 12(2): 94–108.
Siguaw, J. A., Simpson, P. M & Enz, C. A. (2010). Conceptualizing innovation orientation: A scale for study and integration of innovation research. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 23(6): 556–574.
Zontanos, G., & Anderson, A. R. (2012). Relationships, marketing and small business: An exploration of links in theory and practice. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 7(3): 228–236.
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Effect of Chinese Government Policies
Introduction
The essay examines the effect of Chinese government policies when it comes to addressing long-term unemployment, wage inequality, gender discrimination; and inward and outward migration.
Long-term unemployment
Although the economy of China has increased about 2.5 million employment opportunities since the beginning of 2012, almost 4.8 million (3%) individuals were jobless for over 6 months since 2013. Prolonged job loss has become a major challenge for Chinese economy while creating considerable problems for employees, their families, and society. Minimizing long-term unemployment while assisting the affected people, families and communities are essential for policy makers irrespective of their levels.
A robust, healthy and dynamic economy is critical when it comes to addressing prolonged joblessness, however, policies that stimulate continuous growth to seem to be vague. In the case of absence rapid economic development, particular policies can be imperative in assisted that long-term jobless get job opportunities help their families with the effects of prolonging unemployment. Such policies are job training, employee development initiatives (Bidani and Goh, 2004)
A robust economic development can be an appropriate solution to minimizing prolonged joblessness. Long-term unemployment leads to adverse effects on the community. Currently, the majority of Chinese believe that it’s the government’s role to reduce the costs of preventing long-term unemployment (Qiu, 2006).
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Nevertheless, the aspect of government role when it comes to combating long-term unemployment presents sharp incongruity amongst economists. While economist activists support the government’s responsibility, non-activists believe that government policies must be avoided. Such disagreements began more than five decades, which presents a vital backdrop for recognizing the enduring debate regarding the effects of government policies in addressing long-term unemployment.
Afterward, the massive and long-term joblessness coupled with industrialized market challenged the classical theory’s predictions. Depression was used to portray a worst recession. The Great Depression in 1929 and lived up to its name, when it started unemployment was about 3.2%, and four years later it rose to 25% while the real GDP reduced by over 25%.
Apparently, classical theory demonstrates that unemployment can be moderate as well as short-term, which a direct inconsistency of reality, that is supply creates Nonetheless, the Keynesian model indicates that long-term employment is a result of demand and supply. Moreover, organizations highlight production decisions based on the degree of estimated demand or anticipated total spending (Galasso, Ravallion, & Salvia 2004).
The more people spend, the higher the output organizations will anticipate selling and manufacturing. Implicitly, supply/productivity act in response to demand- not the opposite, as demonstrated by classical theory. Of great importance is that Keynesian theory shows that the degree of total expenditure can be insufficient to provide job opportunities, and traditional model presents false information about modification of interest rates to combat long-term unemployment.
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Government Intervention in long-term unemployment
Because Keynesian theory fails to support the idea that market economics could be used use to prevent long term employment. Keynesian theory shows that the government can use various policies in a bid to leverage aggregate demand (AD) using demand and supply policies.
Demand related Policies
These policies are vital when there is recession leading to prolonged joblessness, for example, the after 1991 and 2008. Some of these policies include;
Fiscal Policy
The Chinese government uses fiscal policy to reduce unemployment through increasing AD and the rate of economic growth. However, this calls for pursuing expansionary monetary policy, which entails reducing taxes while increasing government expenditure. Reduced taxes lead to high disposable income and helps in enhancing consumption in turn contributing to a high AD. As such a high AD leads to increase in real GDP.
If organizations produce more, it leads to greater demand for employees and this reduced demand-scarce joblessness. Moreover, with a high AD as well as a robust economic growth, fewer organizations will be insolvent implying less joblessness. In this regards, the federal government recognizes some of the challenges associated with prolonged job loss while enhancing available services such as boosting employment opportunities, address problems of housing bubbles especially those who prefer to move jobs and assist those that want to low paying jobs.
According to Keynesian theory, in particular during the recession, capital and labor are redundant, for that reason the government must get involved so as to create extra demand so as to minimize long-term unemployment (Galasso, Ravallion, & Salvia 2004).
Nonetheless, this mainly relies on various elements of aggregate demand such as if at all self-assurance is low, reducing taxes cannot lead to growth in client spending since individuals may choose to save. Again, individuals may not spend tax reductions if they are reversed immediately. Fiscal policies are associated with a time lag that attempts to increase government expenditure can take much time to impact changes in aggregate demand. Assuming, that economy is almost full, an increase in aggregate demand can lead to inflation.
Expansionary fiscal policies may only minimize joblessness in the event of productivity gap; in turn it requires high regime borrowing. Eventually, monetary policies can result in crowding cut that is the government increases spending although they reduce spending and thus aggregate demand decreases. Nevertheless, Keynesian theory shows that crowding reduction cannot take place in a case of liquidity gap.
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Monetary Policy
With monetary policies, the government reduces the interest rates, which in turn minimizes borrowing costs while encouraging individuals to spend as well as invest. This raises aggregate demand and allows GDP to grow and minimize demand-scare joblessness. Additionally reduced interest rates lead to a decrease in exchange rate making exports extra competitive.
Under certain conditions, low-interest rates can be unproductive in increasing demand. However, monetary policy relies on other elements of aggregate demand. On the other hand, reduced interest rates cannot help increase spending, if financial institutions are not ready to give loans (Lund, 2002).
Supply Side Policies
Supply policies are associated with macroeconomic parameters. Much as supply policies do not increase the overall AD; they aim at overcoming the imperfections in job market and minimize long-term employment as a result of supply factors including structural, frictional and classical or real wage (Qiu, 2007)
On supply side policies, the government uses various policies;
Training and education programs. They purpose to assist the long-term jobless with new skills that allow them to get jobs in upcoming sectors. Nevertheless, in spite of providing training and education initiatives, the jobless can be either unable or not willing to learn new concepts. In any case, this is likely to take a long period to reduce joblessness (State Council PRC 2005).
Job subsidies. Organizations are given tax breaks/ grants due to prolonged unemployment. This is important particularly in giving them self-assurance as well as on job education. Nonetheless, it’s relatively costly while encouraging organizations to substitute existing employees with prolonged joblessness to gain from subsidies.
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Wage inequality
China experiences a remarkable growth in the income gap between urban and rural masses. This lies at the center of social unrest in the nation while leading to significant dangers for the leadership of Chinese Communist Party (CCP). While government economic policies have attempted to provide 30-year growth at 30% and improved the lives of more than 600 million from poverty, the frequency of crowd incidents has grown from 8,700 to 180,000 cases in 1993 to 2010 respectively. These disputes entail claims of corruption as well as illegal land seizures by local governments (Appleton et al., 2004).
Government policies
Increasing personal income
The Chinese government has doubled personal income from 2010-20. In addition, it has increased the minimum wage to 40%. Nevertheless, experts are not impressed by such policies since according to official statistics, averages income for migrant employees, a group the is expected to benefit from the wage increase are already enjoying about 50% of the average salary (Knight and Song, 2007).
Liberalizing Interest Rate
The government has liberalized interest rates so as to promote market-based rates and increase the floating range of deposits as well as loans. The objective is to increase payment of interests to savers while helping boost household incomes. This policy is essential particularly for effective regulation of the economy of China to consumption-driven development. In fact, interest rates on deposits have delayed inflation for several decades leading to negative returns for households (Xu and Ximing 2013; Sicular et al., 2008).
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Tax Reforms
The government initiated a number of tax reforms such as consumption taxes on luxury products and services (Zhao and Sai 2007). However, it is not clear if the attempt when to negate inequality plan made two years ago. The Chinese government has been slow in implementing a property tax, something that is likely to suitable for ensuring equitable distribution of income. For an extended period, Chinese administration has promised to impose taxes on properties however up to now it has managed to target luxury features in a number of cities. (Li, Chuliang and Sicular, 2013).
Government policies on gender discrimination
The constitution of China highlights the importance of equal treatment of all citizens regardless of their ethnicities, religious practices, gender among others. Furthermore, China has various laws as well as government policies that foster equality, particularly in workplaces. Nevertheless, workplace discrimination is not only pervasive but also extensively practiced by private and government organizations.
Policies that aim at combating gender discrimination are hindered by technical difficulties, ineffective enforcement and conflicting reforms and government policies that seem to foster instead of discouraging gender discrimination (Appleton et al., 2014).
In China discrimination among women is widespread and begins even before they join the labor market. Gender-based quotas and enrollment reforms in higher learning institutions are common, regularly leading to higher performance among women compared to men, in particular, majors such as military and police force. Much as China’s ministry of education defends such practices, they often extend to majors with less association with gender, such as sciences.
Upon graduation, women have a hard time compared to men in getting employment opportunities, particularly in technology and science fields (Brandt, Loren and Thomas 2008). Nonetheless, gender discrimination is rampant low-skilled professions. By and large, male are ideal for white-collar opportunities while sales and clerical jobs are preferred for female.
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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According to Becker’s Discrimination Theory, there are various categories of employees including skilled, unskilled, men or women (Becker, 1971). It also involves individuals with undesirable traits and those without non-fiscal considerations on who to recruit. Organizations can reject to recruit from these categories since they wrongly undervalue their economic competence. Organization’s traits are discriminatory not based on their gender rather they are ignorant about their actual power (Wang et al., 2014).
Government reforms
Equal employment
The Chinese government has guaranteed for equal work for men and women. Employment is the foundation of individuals’ livelihood and essential resource that women depend on for subsistence. For many years, the government has encouraged women to start their own business and given them special treatment when it comes to employment training tax breaks.
In addition, the Chinese government has implemented favorable reforms for women including the creation of public-welfare opportunities, the introduction of employment centers, funding special recruitment practices and vocational courses, monitor gender discrimination against employed women and help those primarily laid off to find new opportunities (Wang, et al.,.2014).
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Laws and guidelines
While the constitution of China has various statues that highlight on gender equality, they are inadequate when it comes to preventing gender discrimination. Such vagueness and inadequate implementation of reforms mean that gender discrimination cases are not addressed.
Increasing concern and activism about gender discrimination particularly in workplaces in 2000 contributed to the implementation of various policies;
Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women that prohibits sexual harassment
Regulation of Employment for People with Disabilities of 2007 that requires firms to provide at 1.5% of employment positions to disabled people
Convention on Discrimination in Employment and Occupation that requires the administrating to implement broader policy frameworks against gender discrimination in workplaces
On the other hand, these policies continue to be wanting in efficiency, coverage, and management. For example, they depend on local employment centers that are not only overworked but also understaffed to monitor and rollout anti-discrimination policies. Also, because prospective workers are not real workers based on the law, cases of gender discrimination in places of work are never subjected to labor dispute negotiation structure, and the victims should use official court procedures that are expensive and time-consuming.
Employment Promotion Lawwas considered an important tool for addressing gender discrimination in workplaces; however in reality its impact has been muted. Apparently, gender discrimination is prevalent and implementing of anti-discrimination reforms is deficient, despite some development (Zhang et al., 2004).
Effect of Chinese Government Policies
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Nevertheless, the enforcement of laws coupled with activism like Yirenping and the Equity and Justice Initiative and Act Together in Guangdong presents a basis for awareness concerning gender discriminatory practices and importance for additional reforms. The relevance of activism in promoting gender equality in China cannot be overlooked, especially in the application of laws to litigate as well as openly humiliate discriminating firms. In spite of progress further policies are necessary to fight gender discrimination including;
Increasing the coverage of ant-prejudice laws to involve general forms like sexuality, individual beliefs, age, and physical appearance.
Increasing fines charged on firms from 1,000 to 50,000 yuan per instance.
Establishing a government agency responsible for addressing gender discrimination in workplaces. Such a body will be in charge of executing anti-prejudice regulations and suitable structure for investigating and mediating issues related to gender biases.
Inward and outward migration
Migration presents opportunities as well as challenges. Much as well-managed migration can promote welfare in home and destination nations when mismanaged it can threaten social cohesion, safety, and autonomy. Government policies on migration should focus on knowledge however such knowledge should be developed in a way that deals with policy priorities. Chinese internal migrants considerably contribute to the growth of China’s economy for the past three decades, particularly in the initial phase of economic liberalization.
For example, in the early stages, when the country opened to the world, it received about USD 9546.5 million FDI out of which USD 9254.6 million was from inward migrations while USD 292.34 million from the outward (Smart and Hsu, 2004). Simply put, inward migrations have been the primary source of Chinese inward FDI. On the other hand, inward migration is regarded as a vital when it comes to cross-border trade as well as commercial networks, which are in turn viewed as essential parameters for economic integration Zhuang and Wang, 2010
While China has witnessed tremendous growth due to inward and outward migration, demand and supply dynamics trigger to this development leading to urbanization trends. According to neoclassical theory, with inadequate supply and increasing demand for cheap workforce attract immigrants from a country with surplus labor. With regards to China, high demand for workforce in urban regions and other countries is due to to; a) increasing investments in manufacturing industries and b) elderly population coupled with declining rates of fertility.
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Government policies: 2012 law
The law involves combating “three illegal”- unlawful entry, residence or employment in China. In addition, the law increased fines for all crimes related to migration. For example, expired visa from $800 to $10,000 while for detention for same crime increased from 3 to 10 days or 2 months for complicated cases (Zhang, 2003). Nonetheless, this law has not initiated strategies to manage the nation main problem; migrants trapped in China due to expired visas. While visa applications can be supported through housing registration, such registrations require valid travel credentials.
Conclusion
The essay was dedicated to reviewing the effect of Chinese government policies to address long-term unemployment, wage inequality, gender discrimination; and inward and outward migration.
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Race To Bottom Effect
Introduction
Race to bottom phrase describes how the governments in many different places are deregulating most of the business environments across the globe. They are also imposing high taxes to their benefit where they can retain economic activity in their jurisdictions to their benefit while the business men are highly impacted in a negative manner. Race to bottom is a phenomenon that is bound to increase in the presence of increased competition between geographical areas taking place either in the trade and production sector accordingly.
Most of the workers are now exploited in developing countries due to the race to bottom effect and most of the multinational corporations that benefit countries in operation a lot from such workers (Aneel Karnani, 2010). Workers are less paid and on the other side the multinational companies are getting high finances in return for the service they get in exchange of the cheap labour. This research will focus on how globalization has created a “race to the bottom effect” that enables multinational corporations to exploit workers in the developing countries and profit from low labour costs.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) emphasizes the aspect of companies to behaving ethically and stops exploiting their workers to their benefit; since it is an act that is not human. Practical perspective is provided to many of the organization in the developing countries to guarantee good and ethical dealing of stakeholders for their wealth security. It is a CSR responsibility to ensure that all ethical actions are well adhererd to the latter for the sake of helping their workers and their environment.
Ethical behaviour is well advoatced for smooth running of the organisation performance and increased performance. Any organization that works to ensure that corporate rules are well followed will emerge to be successful and stop exploiting its workers and start listening to their views accordingly. In the past, it was difficult to differentiate between the working and operation of the CSR with the individuals working in the organization.
Globalization effect has brought a lot of effects, including the race to the bottom effect that makes some people gain while the rest are suffering due to the rules in operations that do not yield to their needs (Beddewela & Herzig, 2013). There are many gaps that have been created and they are bringing negative impacts to most of the operations of multinational corporations.
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Globalization of the economy
The race to bottom effect experienced in most developing economies lead to an increased interconnection of people, different cultures and increased economies which benefits only a few, but the rest is humiliated (Blowfield, 2013). Economies will tend to rise at the expense of the few who are benefiting, and the rest are suffering from then increased exploitation cases taking place. It is prudent to say that globalization has stimulated growth through the multinational corporations that are investing highly in developing countries.
The investments of foreign investors in developing countries have led to stimulation of the growth in such countries where workers are working hard on such premises to make end meet. The investors are taking advantage of the high number of unemployment citizens whom they can easily exploit and make use of their knowledge at a very cheap cost. They employ them in the corporations in the developing countries and pay them very less amount of money that cannot cater for their needs. It is due to this reason that most of the multinationals corporations like investing in developing countries for the sake of exploiting poor citizens who have no say.
Company drivers for CSR
Under such circumstances, the CSR becomes more useful in making sure that ethical behaviour is followed to the latter to stop the high exploitation by multinational corporations (Blowfield & Murray, 2011). Regulations of the multinational corporations must not be a difficult duty for the governments because; they are out to save their citizens who voted for them to be in political positions. It is the responsibility of the government to ensure that CSR rules are followed to the latter by different multinational corporations to stop the high exploitation that is taking place.
The societal pressure from the humiliated citizens makes most of the multinational corporations to adopt the use of CSR for the sake of saving most of the humiliated lives within the society. Use of CSR ensures that all the stakeholders’ needs are well met, and their needs followed because; their presence means a lot in the organization (C-Pedersen, 2015). Embracing the right CSR rules is an ethical act that will help to reduce the exploitation of employes in the organisation.
The corporate social, responsibility requires the businesses to assume their major duties and role that ensures that the world is better than yesterday. The CSR activists demand that the corporations adopt labour, environmental policies, and human rights issues that impact the society positively. Globalization poses a lot of opportunities and challenges for the developing countries and this is the reason as to why most of activities have to be scrutinised. The majority of the businesses have responded to the matter by putting more emphasis on the issue of the corporate accountability and corporate responsibility.
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Organizations responsibilities
Organizations have the Philanthropic responsibilities of ensuring that their workers act as good corporate citizens and that they have behavior that will pay off. Well behaved workers will ensure that they perform their duties as expected and bring the best to the corporation by attaining the set goal. The company is delegated with the duty of ethical responsibilities where it has to do what is expected of it at the right time to attain the desired outcome (Carroll, 1991). Workers who are well treated under a good CSR will tend to perform as required while they who are not given the best will not do their job as required.
Use of CSR help workers feel appreciated and part of the organization, which they are offering service for (Crane, Matten & Spence, 2014). Employing the use of ethical responsibilities ensures that a company does what is right and fair and in such a case, it does not mistreat it workers no matter what. It values its workers welfare and rewards them to motivate them to keep offering their services and doing their best for the sake of improved performance in the firm. Following of legal responsibly is the duty of all multinational corporations to avoid exploiting workers in the environment in which they are situated.
Embracing legal responsibility means that the multinational corporations adhere to all that is required by the law to undertake its company operations in the country. Following the rules that are set in the law, the multiple corporations will be able to know what is right and wrong; hence, follow what is right to make their working smooth. However, some corporations evade the paying of taxes which is the unlawful act and once they are found guilty in courts, they lose a lot of money paying for their uncouth behaviours.
Adhering to the rules set in operation for the foreign organization a lot of problems are avoided, and it means that the company is bound to humiliate and exploit workers. The multinational corporations are associated with the economic responsibilities where they have to work hard and make sure that they make profits for the benefit of its workers and the government as well. Making of high profits by the corporations means that they will have enough money to pay taxes and pay its workers well under reputable CSR rules. A high profitable corporation will pay high taxes and benefit the government, which will use the money to run its activities and create more jobs for its citizens.
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Code of conduct
CSR has to be well maintained in a supply chain to make sure that the organization adheres to all the required rules of operations and that it cannot exploit workers to its benefit. When CSR is well used in a supply chain, it will mean that fair trade will be transacted, and cases of oppression will be minimal. To ensure that CSR is managed in the supply chain, it is prudent to realize that all the CSR strategies are well aligned with the actual purchasing practice.
A supply chain will be deemed important if it creates value and clarifies all the objectives of obtaining the right steps of development to the organization’s benefit. A good supply chain should ensure that understanding as well as ability is well developed in any multinational corporations for the sake of continuity and better performance of the company. Workers who are better treated will contribute to giving all their efforts for the company success. It is therefore very prudent to reward workers with good pay to retain best brains that will keep the corporation standing for a longer period (Filatotchev & Dotsenko, 2015).
Implementation of the required code in the organization helps to ensure that the multinational corporations do not exploit workers. In some instances, workers tend to be treated badly by the multinationals corporations, which do not yield to right codes of ethics. Supply chain management should ensure that they get feedback of how working is taking place and what ought to be rectified with an immediate effect. Feedback shows that the worker is given a chance to air their views and give a recommendation on what should be done better. Improving working conditions imply that the multi-corporations are concerned with their workers’ welfare.
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Effects of CSR in the supply chain
There are various factors affecting CSR in the supply chain like the goals and values of the multinational corporations which have been set aside to be attained. However, the only problem that might arise in such a case is the incompatible goals that might interfere with the handling of different activities (Crane, Matten, & Spencer, 2014). When goals are conflicting, operations in the organization might be difficult to handle, and performance will be affected negatively.
The importance and complexity of CSR might be a big problem in the operations of the supply chain by the multinational corporations; since, compatibility will tend to be a bother. There is a need to ensure that there is a balance of power that will guarantee knowledge sharing and good management of the workers and organization operations. Workers ought not to be exploited under power balance, but should be given their rights accordingly because; resources are now available to better their working conditions and increased pay.
Multinational Corporations
The multinational corporations are popular as the big business, and they are a very powerful economic power. The world globalization enhances the integration between the MNCs and the developing countries where the capitalist process and major labour division occur due to the high level of competition to increase economies of scale. At present, the MNCs access cheaper labour by exploiting the low-income earners (Garavan & McGuire, 2010). The industries that need low-skilled labour outsource labourer from the developing countries.
The process involves MNC and the SMEs where the MNCs outsource labour from the small and medium enterprises with whom they can easily exploit. With the global revolution in business, the capitalist firms have changed the pattern of operations in order compete competitively. The MNCs have strengthened their power by opting to do mergers and acquisition, which are better ways of dealing with the race to bottom effect.
The MNCs manipulates the supply chain to ensure that efficiency, productivity, performance, and reliability. The supply chain involves high labour requirements in the production process, and the high, labour are located in the developing countries (Gond, Kang & Moon, 2011. Some of the employers in specific industries come across important incentives to infringe labour standards laws. Lack of enough regulations on the labour standards in the developed and developing nations create opportunities that are favourable to the MNCs.
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The big businesses have the ability to improve the labour standards and adhere to the set labour regulations. The political conflicts between the developed and developing countries create an obstacle to the achievement of the effective labour standards governing both nations. The market liberations offer both opportunities and challenges to the developed and developing nations.
During the WTO Ministerial Conference of 1996, the European and US Commissions maintained the labour standards implementation in the human rights centre, but the labour rights and minimum wage missed from the agendas (Goranova & Ryan, 2014). The Asian nations were not comfortable with the whole decision and they resisted any trade links with them since the standards could end up as non-tariff barriers.
The ILO is in charge of overseeing the labour standards the entire world and it is one of the UN organizations. The body is important since it makes resolutions and passes them urging the nations to honour their duties to realize the ILO Fundamental Rights and Principles. The declaration in the ILO involves four major labour rights that involve the abolition of child labour, banned forced labour, the right to collective bargaining and freedom of association and the abolition of discrimination in employment. The labour practices involve realization of the standards, living wages and minimum wages, the occupational safety, and health, and limit the working hours (Karnani, 2009).
MNCs and Developing Countries
The majority of the developing countries do not have laws to look after the set labour rights and at some level the infrastructural and institutional limitations pose challenges in the implementation process. Due to limitations in the implementation process, the labour performance affects the set core standards. The consumer goods industries are labour intensive despite the technological advancement in the developing nations (Lam and Khare, 2010).
The developing countries and the MNCs get controls from the political and economic relationships. Some of the countries can effectively provide good environments to the Foreign Direct Investments for the MNCs. The standard labor effects differ from one developing country to the other.
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The developing countries are attraction to the MNCs; since, the majority of the developing countries has unskilled and low skilled labour who are exploited at all cost by foreign investors. The global competition in the countries with abundant labour like Indonesia modifies the state of features endowments since the production increases and the wages go down.
The goal of the majority of the MNCs is to increase profits and market shares and gain competitiveness (Mamic, 2005). The majority of the developing countries is attractive to the MNCs since they encourage the bargaining power of wages due to the inelasticity of labour supply. The wages decrease in the developing countries that are experiencing trade liberation like the Mexico occurrence with North American Free Trade Agreement.
The presence of cheap labour is a key factor in the growth of the low-skilled businesses. Currently, the majority of the brand shoes and garment are in the developed countries while they carry out production in developing countries. The labour costs are very little of the retail price of the finished goods that sells at high prices 9Porter & Kramer, 2006). The majority of the MNCs motive is to take advantage of the up-and-coming economies in the developing nations.
Moreover, the MNCs aim at expanding their market shares and remain competitive globally. To fulfil the requirement of increased profit production costs need to be minimal. The ever changes in consumer demand need low-cost investment due to the high likelihood of low pricing. To achieve this MNCs prefer to low labour cost through by paying less to the unskilled labourers.
The internal political and economic factors in the developing economies influence wages. Globalization causes integration in the global labour supply chain that raises competition in the export firms that are labour intensive (Prahalad and Hammond, 2002). This overall practice affects and challenges the labour performance in the developing countries. The regional trade unions in the developing countries vary from one region to the other.
The China and India trade unions differ from the African trade unions like that of the Congress of South African Trade Unions. The Trade Unions cannot bring a strong solution to the issue of low wages in the developing countries. The MNCs will always defend their supply chain and fail to address the issue of low wages (Spence & Bourlakis, 2009).
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Shareholders and Investors
The labour standards are a concern that the MNCs need to address to implement positive changes in the developing countries (Bartley, 2007). The motivation to bring in positive impacts comes from the investors and employees among other members who manipulate the supply chain. Research and ethical source state that the MNCs are likely to implement the labour practices and standards now when the external stakeholder pressure them. The MNCs reputations and profitability increase the values of the shareholder (Vo, & Karen Delchet-Cochet, 2013). The shareholders are the main force that can influence the MNCs corporate social responsibilities.
The branded footwear and clothing industries are under pressure due to the presence of bad working conditions and low wage. For example, the Nike experienced negative publicity concerning the working conditions in the factories (Aneel Karnani, 2010). Despite the open letter from the Clean Clothes Campaign Nike defended itself and maintained it did not carry out any unlawful business. The US Securities and Exchange Commission does not fully support the issue of shareholders addressing wages and so shareholder see labour standards like an unsuitable topic to tackle.
Conclusion
The majority of the MNCs do not address the CSR in the developing countries due to the presence of a low implementation of rules and laws. The issue of labour standards is a major concern, especially in the developing countries due to the presence of high unskilled labour and low skilled labour. The MNCs focus on profits increment, market shares expansion, gaining global competitiveness and expanding operations among other factors.
The developing countries focus more on the FDI that comes in because of investments by the MNCs. The high rates of unemployment in the developing countries facilitate exploitation of labourers and presence of bad working conditions like increased working hour.
Aneel Karnani. (2010). The Case Against Corporate Social Responsibility. Wall Street Journal.
Bartley, T. (2007). Institutional Emergence in an Era of Globalization: The Rise of Transnational Private Regulation of Labor and Environmental Conditions1.American Journal of Sociology.
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Crane, A., Matten, D., & Spence, L. J. (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility: in a global context. Corporate social responsibility: readings and cases in a global context (second., pp 3-26). London: Routledge – Chapter 01
Crane, A., Matten, D., & Spencer, L. (Eds.). (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility: Readings and cases in a global context (2nd ed.). London: Routledge Chapter 11
Filatotchev, I., & Dotsenko, O. (2015). Shareholder activism in the UK: types of activists, forms of activism, and their impact on a target’s performance. Journal of Management & Governance, 19(1), 5-24
Garavan, T. N., & McGuire, D. (2010). Human resource development and society: Human resource development’s role in embedding corporate social responsibility, sustainability, and ethics in organizations. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(5), 487-507.
Gond, J.P., Kang, N. & Moon, J. (2011). The government of self-regulation: on the comparative dynamics of corporate social responsibility. Economy and society, 40, 640-671
Goranova, M., & Ryan, L. V. (2014). Shareholder Activism: A Multidisciplinary Review. Journal of Management, 40(5), 1230-1268
Karnani, A. (2009, Winter). Romanticizing the poor. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 7, 38-43
Lam, H. and Khare, A., (2010). HR’s Crucial role for successful CSR . Journal of International Business Ethics, 3(2), pp. 3-15,82.
Mamic, I. (2005). Managing global supply chain: The sports footwear, apparel and retail sectors. Journal of Business Ethics, 59(1/2), 81-100
Porter, M. E., & Kramer, M. R. (2006). Strategy & Society: The Link Between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 84(12), 78-92.
Prahalad, C.K. and Hammond, A. (2002). ‘Serving the World’s Poor, Profitably’, Harvard Business Review, September 2002, Vol. 80(9), pp.48–58.
Spence, L., & Bourlakis, M. (2009). The evolution from corporate social responsibility to supply chain responsibility: The case of waitrose. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 14(4), 291-302.
Vo, L.C. with Karen Delchet-Cochet. (2013). Classification of CSR standards in the light of ISO 26000. Society and Business Review, 8(2), 134 -144
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New Product Development Process
The main components of a New Product Development process and the benefits of using the Stage-Gate Product Innovation system in the New Product Development Process
New product development (NPD) is an important cornerstone to the success of any firm. To remain competitive, companies cannot bury their head and seem less concerned about developing new products that add value to their customers (Salgado, Salomon & Mello, 2012). Because of these, new product development process is important to businesses and the reason why companies should invest in it. NPD ensures that a new product is introduced in the market to meet the needs of the customers. The paper critically evaluates main components of a NPD process as well as benefits of using Stage-Gate product innovation system.
Before a new product is introduced in the market, it has to go through different processes or stages. The major components of NPD include; opportunity identification and idea generation, product concept development, concept testing, design and engineering of products and lastly is the prototype development and testing (Hauser & Dahan, 2007).
Opportunity identification and idea generation is the first component of NPD process. This is a the most important component that kick-starts the process of development of a new product (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). The new product opportunities are identified or new ideas emerge based on the customer unmet needs. Customers are the major source of inspiration and therefore, any new idea generated must focus on meeting their needs. At this stage, it is important to embrace and consider the views or ideas of other stakeholders such as customers, suppliers, and employees’ point of view.
Communication of this view is expected in good time and no one should be left out (Salgado, Salomon & Mello, 2012). Some challenges may be experienced when gathering information from customers such as possibility of change of mind when the final product comes out, difficult in forming opinions and expressing preference because of a lack of sense of product features, and lastly biasness on the side of information gatherer due to biasness.
To avoid these, it requires use of appropriate methods of data collections for the target customers such as experiential interviews and user observation. In this age of technological advancement, use of web-based methods for the fuzzy front end can apply (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). Virtual groups participate on new product concept by providing their view and opinions. Many firms are finding such groups and individuals that browse on new product stimuli as rewarding.
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The second component is product concept development that begins after identification and grouping of customer needs (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). The journey on how to address the needs of the customer commences. Not all ideas generated are considered. Nevertheless, some of these ideas at the start seem unconventional and impractical but are refined and share into viable opportunities (Salgado, Salomon & Mello, 2012).
Different ideation methods have been proposed. They include system approaches, forced relationships, incentive compatible ideation, brainstorming, varied perspectives, morphological analysis, and archival analysis. For instance, in brainstorming, members are at liberty to generate their ideas regardless whether they are good or unrealistic.
The third component is concept testing. This is also a critical step in the process of new product development process. At this stage, the new products concepts are screened as potential customers use qualitative and quantitative research methods (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). During this process, it is also critical to carry out evaluations by asking oneself whether indeed the idea or concept is important to the consumer. Other attributes to evaluate are the purchase interest of the customers, dissatisfaction with the available products help to prioritize ideas for further testing, and funding.
The concept is defined in the form of a promise to the consumers that indeed the firm understands the relevant needs of the customers (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). It also provides a proof on how the company is prepared to address the needs of the consumers in a better way than any other (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). It is also important to provide an emotional or rational reason why the customer should try the company product, definition, and communication of the concepts core benefit proposition (CBP).
The concept is evaluated through laboratory test markets (LTMs) and survey research. The prediction need to be highly accurate for the product team to evaluate them and make improvement on them. At this stage, the setting should be realistic and concept of marketing such as consideration of marketing mix should be utilized (Hauser & Dahan, 2007).
For example, advertisement of the concepts such as storyboards as opposed to finished advertising with prototype products should be used. Forecasting should be done as the concept moves through the process. This is because, resources are being utilized and it is important to have an estimate of the profit and revenue potential of the concept early in the process.
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The fourth component also stage is the designing and engineering products (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). This stage ensures that few but highly concepts that are proven viable are designed and engineered in order to meet the needs of the customers at profitable costs (Salgado, Salomon & Mello, 2012). The company cannot afford to design and engineer a concept if they have no value to the customer as well as to the company. The techniques they use to design and engineer products are value Engineering and conjoint analysis.
In conjoint analysis, the team optimizes the quantity or level of attributes or features that will be able to satisfy the customers and at the same time accrue profits to the company (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). For example, a company that produces marker cameras will be interested in knowing the optimal values of all the features that will go into its production such as the megapixel, the size, optimal zoom and the price of the camera when completed. In addition, they may also want to put to consideration situations where customers would make tradeoffs with other features.
Different methods of conjoint models are applicable such as hybrid, newer adaptive and discrete (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). On the other hand, value engineering is the integration of both the firm and customer perspectives when making cost and feasibility tradeoffs- in respect to the product (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). The team should consider the importance customers place on every function that the product performs in relation to the cost of the parts that are contributing to that function.
The underlying principle of value engineering is that the marginal cost of every part of the product need to not to exceed the marginal contribution to customer value. With advancement of new information and communication technologies web based methods for deigning and engineering product concepts have been embraced in most companies (Hauser & Dahan, 2007). Use of web based conjoint analysis is preferred because of the many benefits it offers such as capability to be demonstrated in a contextual manner.
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The last component is the prototype development and testing. The main aim or goal of this stage is evaluating the designed and engineered concepts to make the launch easier. At this stage, various prototypes are developed and then tested. The techniques used for testing automatically generate many solutions on the product concept theme (Hauser & Dahan, 2007).
Furthermore, at this stage, it is also important to test the marketing role by testing multiple designs with customers. Realistic testing is also required at this stage. The NPD team can simulate product acceptance in the marketplace that experiences or is affected by different variables such as sales force presentations, word of mouth, and advertising among other.
As globalization increases, the level of competition is increasing and this has seen decrease in product life cycles in most of the technology intensive industries ( Jou et al. 2010). This means that companies have to produce new products that will be of higher value to the customer to win over the competition. This therefore, forces innovators and thinkers to think about the most flexible ways to manage NPD without compromising on efficiency.
One of the methods of management NPD that companies are using is the Stage—gate processes. However, other avenues of adapting Agile methods for software development and integrating them with others are also underway. Little research on integration of the Agile and stage-gate processes has made it difficult for many companies to try the same because this may affect on their performance.
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Stage-Gate product innovation systems are one of the methods that many industries rely on. This method is linear in nature and it depends on documentation on fixed set of activities (Sommer, Hedegaard, Dukovska-Popovska & Steger-Jensen, 2015). The method has a series of product development stages and it starts from the generation of idea, the development of the idea, and then implementation phases which is then followed with product launch or the evaluation stage that comes at the end.
According to Sommer, Hedegaard, Dukovska-Popovska & Steger-Jensen (2015), this method has a number of advantages to the organization. One of the advantages of using this method is that it increases the speed of development. This ensures that the company achieves its objectives within a short period. This increased speed as well cuts the costs incurred as it takes less time to come up with an idea and to take the same through the stages to the final stage of product launch.
The method is also able to produce better quality (Sommer, Hedegaard, Dukovska-Popovska & Steger-Jensen, 2015). Quality is important especially when it comes to the products that consumers want. Quality is a strategy that companies use to achieve a competitive edge over their competitors. Therefore, it is very good method to ensure that high standards of quality are achieved. The other advantage of the method is that it ensures greater discipline and better performance overall compared to other informal development processes (Sommer, Hedegaard, Dukovska-Popovska & Steger-Jensen, 2015).
Using the tool as well decreases iterations, as the entire process is predictable from the commencement to the final product. The method has been established to help improve performances at the fuzzy front end stage through development processes (Sommer, Hedegaard, Dukovska-Popovska & Steger-Jensen, 2015). Fuzzy from end is set of activities done even before the process of defining requirements specification is over. This stage therefore requires the team to deliberate on what the product should do to meet or satisfy the perceived business needs.
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According to (Grönlund, Sjödin, & Frishammar, 2010), stage-gate methodologies are known across the world and are mostly used in industries all over the world to help bring order to chaotic process of product innovation. In a survey carried out, it was found out that 60 percent of those responding NPD functions were in one way or another using Stage – Gate methodology. The methodology coined by Robert Cooper was to help achieve efficiency.
It is therefore both an operational and a conceptual model that helps to move product across all the phases of development (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010). It achieves effectiveness and efficiency through integrating in a process known as ad-hoc that is lacking in many industries. The gates function as top and go and they as well help to prioritize points for decisions for the future of the project are to be made (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010).
The functional groups known as gatekeepers are the ones that man them and they help in project evaluation on the basis of business rationale, quality of execution, and quality of action plan. This therefore, indicates the magnitude of scrutiny and gate keeping involved in using the methodology (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010). All this is done to avoid errors. For instance, the execution must be of high quality. The business rationale is also put to consideration. Understanding the purpose of the business is key to ensure that implementation is done in a good manner to have positive impacts on the project.
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Research has shown that this method is highly appreciated by many industries for its potential to energize and to speed up the new product development initiatives (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010). Despite, this, there have been criticism from other quarters leveled against using Stage-Gate method. Critics argue that the method is time consuming, and this leads to time wasting (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010). The time wasted could have been used in a valuable venture.
Others criticism of the method include no provision of focus, it requires that one follows bureaucratic procedures and it restricts learning opportunities (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010). The bureaucratic procedures are evidenced as the methodology adherse to the process of NPD from start to the final stage. This too is not pleasing and they feel that it should be modified. The restriction of learning opportunity is also a weakness that should be addressed quickly. The method is linear and it does not provide a better platform for other to learn.
Next generation stage-gate process method has been developed in response to the criticism against this method (Grönlund, Sjödin, & Frishammar, 2010). The motivation for developing is for improving efficiency and speeding up of processes through incorporation of fluid stage with fuzzy and series of overlapping or confrontational go decisions. More developments on the method have focused on making it faster, flexible, adaptable, and effective (Grönlund, Sjödin & Frishammar, 2010). Some of the companies that have used State-Gate processes have also begun to accommodate open innovation activities.
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The development in the NPD process demonstrates the importance of proper tools and methodologies to rely on during NPD process. Many companies have utilized stage-Gate method and they have succeeded in their NPD process. The level of speed has increased with the method. Level of efficiency and effectiveness has also increased and these are some of the reasons that still compel firms to rely on the same.
Constructive criticism against the method has also emerged. Nevertheless, instead it is important and constructive to receive criticism so that the inspiration to create a more appealing and active methodology is reached. The most important thing is that researchers are producing new advanced methods to help improve management of NPD process. Such improvements method makes management of NPD process even more productive and plausible.
As I conclude, new product development process is very important and has to be taken serious if companies are concerned about the future. It is through NPD that companies and industries are able to survive the competition and even manage to achieve a competitive edge. Competition has become high and the only way to avoid the same is to create products that are unique to the market. This process of development must therefore go through different stages to ensure that the final product is of high quality, it meets the expectation of the customer, it also adds value to the customers, and that it has to bring returns to the company.
A venture that the company investments on should have tangible benefits to be of value. In NPD, it is important to understand that it involves different components that that are of great important to the success of the entire process. These components also phases include generation of ideas and opportunities, product concept development, concept setting, design and engineer of the products and lastly, prototype development as well as testing.
Various methods are as well used for management of these processes. Stage-gate is one of the methods that I would use in the project. The method has quite a number of benefits that firms accrue. Even though, the method has some weaknesses, efforts are underway to ensure that the method is improved to offer value to the firm.
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Reference
Ale Ebrahim, N, Ahmed, S, & Taha, Z 2010, ‘Critical factors for new product developments in SMEs virtual team’, African Journal of Business Management, vol. 4 no.11, pp. 2247-2257
Grönlund, J., Sjödin, D. R., & Frishammar, J. (2010). Open Innovation and the Stage-Gate Process: A revised model for new product development. California Management Review, 52(3), 106-131.
Jou, Y. T., Chen, C. H„ Hwang, C. H., Lin, W. T., and Huang, S. J 2010, ‘A study on the improvements of new product development procedure performance: An application of design for Six Sigma in a semiconductor equipment manufacturer’, International Journal of Production Research, vol. 48 no. 19, pp.573-5591.
Salgado, E, Salomon, V, & Mello, C 2012, ‘Analytic hierarchy prioritisation of new product development activities for electronics manufacturing’, International Journal Of Production Research, 50, 17, pp. 4860-4866, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 27 November 2015.
Sommer, A, Hedegaard, C, Dukovska-Popovska, I, & Steger-Jensen, K 2015, ‘Improved Product Development Performance through Agile/Stage-Gate Hybrids’, Research Technology Management, 58, 1, pp. 34-44, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 27 November 2015.
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Nursing Education Theory
Question 1
In the recent course, the core principles that have been applied are andrology. This aspect was developed by Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913-1997) which was used synonymously as adult education. The core aspect of andrology is that it is both an art and a science of adult learning (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008).
This term is sometimes viewed to be equivalent to pedagogy, which is a Greek word that refers child leading (Kearsley, 2010). The principles of andragogy are based on four assumptions. To start with, it points out the issue of self-concept, which indicates that as a person matures, they shift from becoming dependent personality to being self-directed persons (Atherton, 2013).
Additionally, andragogy assumes that as human beings mature, they accumulate experience reservoirs, which become the resources of learning (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008). Additionally, this increases readiness to acquire knew knowledge, which increases their developmental responsibilities. This also improves their orientation learning (Atherton, 2013).
This is because a nature person’s perspective continues to change by the adoption of immediacy application of the learnt knowledge rather than postponing of the knowledge, thus shifting the learning orientation from subject centeredness to that of the problem solved approach. Additionally, the matured adult gets the motivation to learn increases (Kearsley, 2010).
Nursing Education Theory
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The core principles of andragogy that have been observed in this course include the principle of planning and evaluation of the instruction given (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008). Additionally, in this learning process, all experiences and mistakes are viewed as effective and form the basis of learning as it broadens an individual’s way of thinking (Atherton, 2013).
Additionally, the learning by the adults is important if it gives immediate relevance or benefits to person’s lives or their jobs (Kearsley, 2010). Additionally, the adult learning problem centred as compared to content oriented. This is effective way of interacting learning and improving the knowledge as well as critical thinking skills of the learner (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008).
The effectiveness of this learning method is based by the fact that in each of the aspect being taught must be elaborated extensively giving the specific reasons behind the concept (Kearsley, 2010). Additionally, this learning process ensures that instructions are task oriented, thus ensuring that the concepts are understood rather that memorization as compared pedagogy (Atherton, 2013).
Additionally, this learning method puts into considerations the diversity of the learners, thus allowing integration of different materials and learning methods according to each person’s experiences (Kearsley, 2010). The learning method assumes that learning instructions is self-directed, thus the learners will enable them discover new knowledge without actually depending on other people (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008).
Nursing Education Theory
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Question 2
There is high diversity in nursing career. This includes diversity in students, contents being taught and the tutors teaching these contents. The learning method chosen must be delicate enough to accommodate this diversity (Kearsley, 2010). The diverse learning theories include the Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance where the students are seeking to balance between their behaviour and their attitudes (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008). This is often important where a person seeks to choose between the learning issues that are culturally competent from those that are not.
This method is not popular in nursing because it inhibits acquisitions of new ideas that conflict the persons attitudes or even behaviours (Atherton, 2013). Carl Rogers experiential learning theory focuses on the applied knowledge which improves (Kearsley, 2010), despite the popularity, this learning method is still not widely used in nursing process. This trend is similar to Albert Bandura social learning theory (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008).
Nursing Education Theory
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The learning theory foundation for nursing course is the adult learning theory (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008). This is because this learning theory incorporates the aspects of the other learning theories aforementioned (Atherton, 2013). Additionally, this learning theory integrates the use of case studies, simulations, role playing as well as self-evaluation by the students (Kearsley, 2010). The students are involved during the planning as well as evaluation. The learning methods promote learning activities based on experiences (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008).
Additionally, this learning method puts into considerations the diversity of the learners, thus allowing integration of different materials and learning methods according to each person’s experiences (Kearsley, 2010). The learning method assumes that learning instructions is self-directed, thus the learners will enable them discover new knowledge without actually depending on other people (Atherton, 2013). This helps in promoting the nursing processes principles of leadership and cultural competence.
This method also increases the student’s attentions, through the incorporation of modelled events as well as the use of observation characteristics (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008). This learning method ensures that knowledge is retention through use of symbolic learning and improvement of motor reproduction, thus ensuring that self-reinforcement. This learning method integrates other learning methods which ensures that the student attention, motivation, memory, behavioural frameworks and cognitive abilities (Iwasiw, Goldenberg, & Andrusyszyn, 2008).
Leadership in military service is unique as it expects the leaders to thrive in dynamic and complex life situations. The leaders are expected to think critically regarding their personal skills, philosophies, core leadership competencies and limitations and ways to apply these capacities at hand.1 This requires a strong understanding of leadership. In this context, this paper evaluates the three key elements of leadership namely, leadership philosophy, interview of commander and analysis of the commander’s interview using my leadership philosophy guide.
Leadership Command Philosophy
To become a successful leader, personal beliefs of leadership must be consistent with the principles and values of the organization as served. In this context, I believe that leadership is not a skill that can be taught or mastered, but rather a continuous journey of learning, self-discovery and growth. This journey involves self-awareness, an important factor for effective leadership.
Renowned philosopher Socrates stated that life that is unexamined is not worth living it. This implies that effective leadership is obtained from leaders that understand themselves i.e. view issues, challenges and team members through personal lenses. I believe in questioning of the applicability of the strategies proposed to ensure that they are not biased and respect individual’s rights and autonomy. This facilitates in understanding my strength, weakness, and motivations.3
One of the driving forces in my leadership styles is personal ethics. I tend to demonstrate the passions of my work by practicing ethical values are consistent with the core values of the Airforce- which are ‘integrity first, service before self and excellence in all we do.’ This ensures that my relationship with the team members are long term and meaningful. Additionally, my leadership philosophy is to keep my workplace fun, with sense of pride and ownership. As a leader, one is expected to set good command of climate.
I believe that to get most out of my personnel, I have to let them enjoy their work place, but in an accountable manner. As a leader, I understand that I am held liable for all actions conducted in my work space. For this reason, I ensure that the team members hold each other liable for the actions and decision made. This is by focusing on the personal behaviours and not personality. This ensures that the team members to respect each other.1
Leadership Command Philosophy
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To earn respect as a leader, it is important to make the team feel respected and to understand that their contributions and opinions are appreciated. This is because no one has the capacity to tackle all the challenges, and good ideas can be generated from all ranks. Lastly, I believe in self-development and self-awareness. I have the key role to ensure that I empower other team members to ensure that there is continuity of effective leadership in this team.
This is because I have been privileged to interact with great leaders who devoted their efforts on mentoring me in various leadership levels, and correcting my mistake. From these mentorship programs, I now understand that being an effective mentor is more than sitting with the team members to conduct yearly reviews, but rather having respect and trust to integrate them in critical issues whenever they arise.2
“Anyone can hold the helm when the sea is calm”2 Publilius Syrus opened the interview of great inspirational commanders in the Air force. The commander indicates that leadership is a rough sea. This has made him develop a philosophy that people are aligned with purpose and connected by their integrity.
The commander’s decision making process is influenced by his leadership philosophy which occurs in shape of a follower, before embarking on his leadership roles. The decision making process indicates that he carriers out tasks with the aim of achieving influential outcome. According to this interview, when he is assigned tasks, he strives to understand why the work really matters, and the information gathered enables him to make decisions that are ethical and unbiased, and he is able to prioritize between the tasks.3
Leadership Command Philosophy
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The skills and core competencies applied by the commander’s to address the issues to be resolved include the personal values, team and organizational principles. He understands that these three leadership competencies are interrelated and are effective for problem solving. By understanding the rationale and importance of the assigned works, the leader is able to incorporate the team members, communicates effectively to ensure that they understand their common purpose.
The sense of mission developed from this process not only motivates the team members but also aligns them towards achieving the expected goal. The leader states that using the right frameworks during decision making such as applying the most effective methods to communicate missions consistently and clearly and early assessment of the impacts facilitates in decision making process, improving the delivery of the expected purpose.1
The commander take criticism for any decision made positively, which improves their professional development. As he narrates, in his first years of leadership, I overlooked the connection between performance and integrity. For instance, I would be assigned critical tasks that needed to be performed in certain manner, and within a speculated time. In most of the tome, I would accomplish the task, but under my terms and conditions.
This influenced my relationship with his supervisors in a negative manner. He underwent several disciplinary actions, and mentorship programs that helped him understand that effective interaction consists of three critical issues namely accountability, trust and integrity.3
As observed throughout the interview, his first word in his credo is people. He values he individuals he works with, the peers, subordinate staff, peers and superiors. This commander relied on the resources from these peers to undertake all the tasks assigned. According to his views, he conducts all tasks assigned by putting human dimensions, missions and aspects into perspective.2
Leadership Command Philosophy
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From this assessment, it is evident that leadership philosophy is not an easy task as to consist of endless numbers of theories, experiences, diagrams and endless list of personal, people and organization’s considerations. However, the most intriguing fact about this course is development of individual’s philosophy. My leadership philosophy reminds me that my sole purpose in the military service is to serve the nation.
This implies that in this line of career, I am not the sole author of my destiny, and that success is a by-product of team effort. As shown in the interview, the opinions of every person about the future of their leadership are relevant only if it aligns with the vision of the commanders.3
The leaders in all organization have the responsibilities to understand the realities and challenges facing them, and in recognition of the emerging opportunities to meet these challenges. From my leadership philosophy, it is evident that for people to adapt without jeopardizing the core values of the organization there is need to develop a clear commitment and understanding of all organization members objectively.1
Additionally, the key to unleashing people’s full potential is through the actualization of visions that occur by creating the right organizational climate. This is because an organization where people remain uninspired by the type of their work, have low self-confidence, are concerned with increased criticism and lacks support and feedback of their performances are less likely to improve their performance. This implies that the leaders must understand the importance of the team members, help them understand and visualise what is expected of their actions and how these actions will be monitored. 3
However, within the established boundaries, they must feel valued, appreciated and freedom to experiment their innovative new ideas. The leaders must understand that the cohesiveness of the team at work place or even in their off duty is very important. This is a climate that must be established in all departments. As a leader, my primary role is to facilitate achievement. This implies that as a leader, I influence more how the team members think than commanding the work. My role is to tell the team members where to go, but they must figure it by themselves on ways to get them there. 2
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Conclusion
As indicated by this course work, the leaders influence the way of thinking of the team members. The leaders are expected to ensure that feedback is provided throughout the organization, and that performance (whether bad or good) is recognized. The leaders must understand that the success of an organization is determined by the cohesiveness on the people working under their commands.
2. Schneider, Sherry K., and Winnette M. George. ‘Servant Leadership Versus Transformational Leadership In Voluntary Service Organizations’. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 32.1 (2011): 60-77. Web.
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Toward an Ontology for Functional Requirements
Introduction
Software development is undoubtedly one of the most daunting tasks in the field of information systems and a key process involved is specifying software requirements aimed at understanding and defining the functionalities required from the software (Lauesen, 2002). This fete is determined by outlining the software requirements that describe both non-functional as well as functional requirements of the software system that subsequently become the basis for the process of developing the software system (Sommerville, 2007).
Accordingly, requirements of software systems that exist play a crucial role in providing insights with regards to the re-usability of software artifacts that are already implemented. In the course of software system development process, typical discussions take place between developers and customers in order to agree on requirements specifying the software system functionality (Wiegers, 2003). However, this research report focuses on ontology for functional requirements meaning emphasis will be on the software functionality.
According to Gómez-Pérez, Fernández-López & Corcho (2004) ontology is an explicit or formal specification or description of a shared conceptualization of objects in terms of their constraints, relationships, properties, and behaviors. Functional ontology with regards to software refers to the desired characteristics of the software as specified by the customer and when they fall within functional requirements (FRs) are considered to be a sequence of actions based on a particular context (Malan & Bredemeyer, 1999).
Al-Ahmad, Magel & Abufardeh (2015) defined functional requirements as the characteristics describing the system behavior through an expression of it as the system’s inputs and output as well as the relationships that ensue between inputs and the output. Such requirements are crucial in the software’s development life-cycle since they act as the basis for cost estimation, work plans, implementations as well as follow-up directives or maintenance (van Lamsweerde, 2009). As a result, the purpose of this research report is to build ontology for functional requirements.
Ontology for Functional Requirements
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Motivation/scope
The purpose of this research report is to build ontology for functional requirements and its motivation lies in specifying the ontology’s functional requirements and systematization by devising prescriptive, efficient and detailed guidelines of the methodology specifying functional requirements of the proposed ontology. The methodological guidelines for the proposed ontology are developed in the context of competency questions (CQs) and motivated by methodologies that already exist for building ontologies as well as available literature and practices (van Lamsweerde, 2009).
The inspiration of this project is further based on the fact that, these methodological guidelines which are already in existence help in capturing knowledge from users of the developed ontologies leading to production of the ontology requirements’ specification document (ORSD), which is subsequently utilized by ontology engineers towards developing ontologies satisfying identified functional ontology requirements.
As a result, the significant motivation is that the methodological guidelines to be developed play a key role in serving as an agreement among domain experts, ontology engineers and users on the functional requirements to be included in the ontology (van Lamsweerde, 2009).
Furthermore, building a software system that is knowledge intensive was another great motivation of this project where the ORSD would be decisive throughout the process of developing the ontology if an actual application was to be carried out since it facilitates: facilitating (1) searching and reusing of knowledge-aware resources that exist in order to re-engineer them into ontologies; (2) searching and reusing of ontologies that exist, ontology design, patterns, ontology statements, or ontology modules; and (3) ontology verification throughout the process of developing ontologies, among other activities (Roth & Woodsend, 2014).
The context in which the methodological guidelines presented in this research report have been generated based on the NeOn Methodology with regards to the NeOn project guidelines (Gómez-Pérez & Suárez-Figueroa, 2008). The scope of the research report is covered in four main sections: Section 1 is the introduction which discusses the introductory aspects of the research report, including the motivation/scope; statement of the problem and significance for information systems (IS); the problem’s importance; and objectives/goals.
Section 2 includes the background of the research report where guidelines of the methodology for functional requirements’ ontology are specified and discussed. Section 3 presents the discussion and anticipated applications of the proposed ontology for functional requirements. Finally, Section 4 provides the conclusions and future work.
Ontology for Functional Requirements
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Problem statement and significance for IS
Since the invention of computers and information systems, software uses have never reached the levels they are at nowadays because of the myriad of problems they are currently solving (Al-Ahmad et al, 2015). However, today software development processes have focused on tailor-made software targeted to solve a similar problem facing a group of individuals, companies, organizations or institutions.
Hence the most demanding and key process in software development is to specify requirements of the ontology, especially the functional requirements outlining the functionality of the software system (van Lamsweerde, 2009). Failure to carry out this task effectively, which is a serious problem, will definitely lead to development of an inefficient ORSD which will not succinctly specify and describe functions of the software product or system (Grüninger & Fox, 1995).
When functional requirements of ontologies are confusing, costs of developing ontologies are often increased, which makes the process of analyzing ontology requirements the most important phase in the life-cycle of ontology development (Cascini, Fantoni & Montagna, 2013). The process of analyzing ontology requirements focuses on specifying effective functional requirements that satisfy customer needs and their implementation by developers is feasible.
This is undoubtedly a challenging fete to achieve easily and usually poses a major problem to many software developers. However, ontology requirements are often established using competency questions (CQs) identification technique in most of the existing software development methodologies, but the current methodologies’ guidelines for building software do not provide sufficient definitions of ontology’s functional requirements hence causing an additional problem (Staab et al., 2001; Roth & Woodsend, 2014).
Ontology for Functional Requirements
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Furthermore, the challenge or problem posed by the need to sufficiently identify/specify and describe ontology requirements, particularly the functional requirements in the process of software development life cycle is of great significance for information systems (IS). This is attributed to the fact that the methodological guidelines used to develop ontology requirements help in capturing knowledge from users, leading to production of ORSD that are subsequently utilized by ontology engineers in developing ontologies that satisfy the identified requirements (van Lamsweerde, 2009).
As a result, these methodological guidelines for the ontology to be developed play a key role in serving as an agreement among domain experts, ontology engineers and end-users on the functional requirements to be included in the ontology; thus they become of great significance for information systems (IS) field as a whole (van Lamsweerde, 2009).
In addition, when building a software system that is knowledge intensive, the ORSD developed from the respective functional requirements and methodological guidelines facilitates the searching and reusing of knowledge-aware resources that exist in order to re-engineer them into ontologies; searching and reusing of ontologies that exist, ontology design, patterns, ontology statements, or ontology modules; and ontology verification throughout the process of developing ontologies, among other activities (Roth & Woodsend, 2014).
Ontology for Functional Requirements
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Importance of the problem
The importance of the problem discussed in the previous sub-section is undisputable because the identification of ontology requirements’ specification plays a critical role in the process of software development. This is mainly because it attempts to define and understand the required functionalities from the software system or product based on the identified ontology’s functional requirements (Kotonya & Sommerville, 1998).
As a result, there are several benefits provided by the detailed software requirements document produced including:
(a) establishing the basis on which customers and developers or suppliers agree on the uses and users of the software system or product to be developed,
(b) reducing the effort required to develop the software,
(c) providing the basis on which costs and schedules are estimated, and
(d) offering a baseline to validate and verify the developed software system or product (Ambrósio et al., 2004).
As a result, clearly developed methodological guidelines help IT experts or technicians to build ontology-based applications or software that are used to solve problems we face on daily basis (Wiering, 1996). Thus, based on these efforts software developers currently have precise methodological guidelines that are helpful to them when defining functional requirements of the applications they develop on daily basis (van Lamsweerde, 2009).
Ontology for Functional Requirements
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Objectives
The overall goals of this project are to identify a particular methodology for building ontologies, including the method guidelines for ontology’s functional requirements specification. This includes stating the purpose for building the proposed ontology, the intended users and uses as well as the functional requirements that should be fulfilled by the ontology after its formal implementation through detailed methodological guidelines that efficiently specify functional requirements of the ontology.
Background
The growth of interest in approaches to build ontologies from scratch has been increasing since 1990s and early year of this century, especially in the reuse of existing ontologies as well as utilization of semiautomatic methods aimed at reducing challenges of knowledge of acquisition in the process of ontology development. However, up to mid-1990s the process was slow because it was art based instead of engineering activity and each team involved pursued their own design criteria, set of principles and the ontology building phases were manual.
In 1997, the process of ontology development (Fernández-López & Gómez-Pérez, 2004) was identified on the METHONTOLOGY methodology framework for construction of ontology. The basis of such proposal was the IEEE standard for the development of software and it outlined all the activities carried out when developing ontologies (IEEE, 1998).
When developing a software application in context of ontologies, the functional requirements of the ontology should be identified as well as those of the application (Wiegers, 2003). Sommerville (2007) claims that today there are precise methodologies to help ontology-based software application developers in defining application requirements. For instance, in METHONTOLOGY [Gómez-Pérez et al., 2004] the goals of the activity of specifying ontology requirements are identified; however, methods to conduct those activities are not proposed in this methodology.
In other methodologies such as Grüninger and Fox [Grüninger & Fox, 1995], the Unified methodology [Uschold, 1996], and On-To-Knowledge methodology [Staab et al., 2001], identification of the requirements follows aspects for ORSD creation including: (1) the ontology’s purpose, (2) the intended ontology’s users and uses, and (3) the set of ontology requirements to be fulfilled after the formal implementation of the ontology.
Competency questions (CQs) are commonly used in most methodologies existing today in order to establish ontology requirements. However, considering that CQs are questions and answers based on the natural language on which the ontology is built, their responses are essential in determining and evaluating the type of required requirements that are specified.
Ontology for Functional Requirements
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Generally, ontology requirements are expressed in a variety of ways, including story-boards and UML diagrams. Alternatively, expectations of the ontology are most commonly expressed in natural language such as the ability of a user to log-in to his/her account (Mich et al., 2004). However, despite the benefit of natural language being intelligible to both developers and clients, they can lead to ambiguity, vagueness and incompleteness (Fernández-López & Gómez-Pérez, 2004). Roth & Woodsend, 2014) argued that although the use of formal languages as an alternative can eliminate some of these challenges, customers are not often able to understand the requirements when they are highly formalized.
Al-Ahmad et al, (2015) proposed that in order to decrease the requirements’ inconsistency and ambiguity caused by the use of the informal natural language approaches that capture both semantic and syntactic features of requirements can be used.
Guidelines of NeOn Methodology for Ontology Functional Requirements
Methodological guidelines in the context of the NeOn Methodology [Gómez-Pérez & Suárez-Figueroa, 2008] are used in this research report to discuss the ontology functional requirements. The creation of the methodological guidelines presented in this research report was done based on the NeOn Methodology, particularly relying on previous studies conducted to revise the status of ontology development.
Next, in Fig. 1 presented below the methodological guidelines for the specification of ontology functional requirements are outlined in prescriptive as well as detailed manner, highlighting main tasks that are carried out in addition, to the involved inputs and the output as well as the responsible actors.
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Task 1: Identification of purpose, scope as well as ontology implementation language: This task determines ontology’s main goal, its feasible granularity and coverage as well as implementation language. The team developing the ontology achieves this by conducting interviews with domain experts and end-users to identify their needs in order for developers the ontology to make a decision on the most appropriate language to be formally used implement the ontology.
Task 2: Identification of intended end-users: This task is aimed at establishing the ontology’s intended end-users who will be mainly using the ontology to be developed. The team developing the ontology achieves this by conducting interviews with domain experts and end-users where a set of the identified needs of the ontology are taken as inputs; whereas a list of the ontology’s intended users is taken as the output.
Task 3: Identification of intended uses: Scenarios linked to the targeted ontology-based application are the main motivation of the ontology development; hence, this task is aimed at obtaining the intended use scenarios and uses of the ontology. The team developing the ontology achieves this by conducting interviews with domain experts and end-users where a set of identified needs of the ontology are taken as inputs; whereas a list of the ontology’s intended uses based on scenarios is taken as the output.
The inputs should outline the ontology uses within the intended ontology-based application in order to obtain an overview of the ontology’s functional requirements, while the output should describe a set of general functional requirements the ontology should fulfill upon its formal implementation.
Task 4: Identification of ontology’s functional requirements: This task is aimed at acquiring a set of ontology’s functional requirements that should be fulfilled by the ontology because they are considered essential content requirements referring to specific knowledge which is the represented by the proposed ontology. The team developing the ontology achieves this by conducting interviews with domain experts and end-users where a set of identified needs of the ontology are taken as inputs; whereas ontology’s initial functional requirements are taken as the output.
Writing of CQs in natural language is used as the main technique to identify functional requirements in addition to other techniques such as Excel and mind map tools. Using wiki tools including Cicero 12 is also appropriate when people involved are geographically distributed.
Task 5: Grouping of ontology’s functional requirements: This task is aimed at grouping CQs identified in task 4 of this methodology into various categories. A hybrid approach should be used by domain experts, intended ontology users, and the team developing the ontology in classifying the list of CQs by not only combining categories that are established in advance including date, time, units of measurement, languages, locations, currencies, etc., in addition, to creating categories for words found within the list of CQs that have the highest frequencies of appearance.
Card sorting technique is used in manual grouping, while natural language clustering to extract information technique is used in automated grouping. In addition, graphic display of CQs in groups is done using mind map, whereas Cicero is used in collaborative grouping.
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Task 6: Validating the set of functional requirements: This task’s goal is to identify missing functional ontology requirements, possible conflicts between functional ontology requirements, as well as contradictions between them. The task is executed by domain experts and end-users taking a set of ontology’s functional requirements identified in task 4 of this process as inputs aimed to determine the validity of each element. Confirmation the validity of a set of ontology’s functional requirements is taken as the task’s output.
Task 7: Prioritizing ontology’s functional requirements: The task is aimed at assigning various levels of priority to the identified ontology’s functional requirements with regards to various groups of CQs, and to various CQs in every group obtained in task 5. The task is executed by ontology’s domain experts, intended end-users, and the team developing the ontology taking ontology’s functional requirements identified in task 4 of the process and groups of CQs obtained in task 5 of the process as inputs.
A set of obtained priorities inherent in every functional requirement as well as to each CQ in a group and to each group of CQs is taken as the task output.
Task 8: Extracting terminologies and their frequencies: This task is aimed at extracting a pre-glossary of terms within the obtained CQs as well as answers provided. The extracted pre-glossary of terms are divided into three parts that are distinct from each other as follows: terms that are extracted from CQs, terms that are extracted from answers provided to CQs, as well as terms whose identification is attributed to named entities, which are objects.
There will be future use of extracted terms showing higher frequencies of appearance in knowledge-aware resources searching when they have reuse potential in later processes of ontology development. This task should be carried out by the team developing the ontology, taking the obtained CQs and the provided answers as inputs utilizing techniques of terminology-extraction and tools that support them.
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Discussion and Anticipated Applications
In the process of developing ontology-based software application, there must be identification of the ontology requirements as well as those of the application itself. The experience gained in this project indicated that, more essential than mere software’s functional requirements capturing was precise as well as effective identification of ontology’s inherent knowledge.
As a result, ontology-based software application developers currently have specific methodological guidelines that are helpful to them in defining functional requirements of the software applications they intend to develop. This implies that, the NeOn methodology guidelines used to specify functional ontology requirements’ specification of the proposed ontology presented here, have been utilized to the NeOn ontologies as well as developing ontologies educational as well as research projects whose developers’ feedback on ontologies is interesting in each case (Gómez-Pérez & Suárez-Figueroa, 2008).
Furthermore, it is worth to mention that the methodological guidelines developed in this research project based on NeOn Methodology and the subsequent ORSD facilitated the process of identifying the functional requirements of an ontology in a variety of ways including:
(1) allowing representation of specific knowledge in developed ontologies to be identified,
(2) facilitating knowledge resources that are already existing to be reused by focusing the search of the resource in representation of specific knowledge in developed ontologies, as well as
(3) permitting developed ontologies to be verified with regards to functional requirements that ontologies should satisfy (Gómez-Pérez & Suárez-Figueroa, 2008).
As a result, the produced detailed software requirements document was proved to be good guideline because it fulfilled several aspects including: (a) establishing the basis on which customers and developers or suppliers agree on the uses and users of the software system or product to be developed, (b) reducing the effort required to develop the software, (c) providing the basis on which costs and schedules are estimated, and (d) offering a baseline to validate and verify the developed software system or product (Ambrósio et al., 2004).
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Developed methodological guidelines on the basis of NeOn Methodology succinctly outline the ontology functional requirements leading to the development of ORSD which allows (a) a search that is more direct for existing knowledge resources that are necessary to be reused in the process of developing the ontology, and (b) the ontology content evaluation (Wiegers, 2003). Thus, the methodological guidelines of NeOn Methodology can have applications in various projects.
For instance, developed guidelines can be applied in e-Employment whose goals are developing an interoperable and knowledge intensive architecture based on ontologies of public e-Employment services (PES), and enabling market-places that are federated for mediation of employment agencies through an interoperation which is based on peer-to-peer network (Gómez-Pérez & Suárez-Figueroa, 2008). These methodological guidelines of NeOn Methodology can also be used in e-Procurement as well as pharmaceutical companies.
For instance, in e-Procurement application they can be used in solving the problem caused by the lack of interoperability between those emit and receive invoices; whereas in pharmaceutical companies application, these guidelines can be used in helping to systematize the creation, maintenance and storage of updated information that is drug-related as well as allowing new drug resources to be easily integrated (Sommerville, 2007).
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Conclusion and Future Work
In conclusion, it is important to state that identification of functional requirements is one of the crucial activities in the process of developing ontologies. In this research report, the specification of ontology’s functional requirements has been systematized in the proposed prescriptive as well as detailed methodological guidelines developed in the context of NeOn Methodology in order to specify ontology’s functional requirements.
The developed methodological guidelines can act as a baseline for creating a particular ORSD which is critical to speed up the process of developing the ontology. Terms as well as their frequency of occurrence from the ORSD’s pre-glossary can be used to search and select consensual and knowledge-aware resources that are existing, which after the process of re-engineering when essential, thereby allowing ontologies to be built faster, cheaply, and with higher quality.
The developed methodology guidelines based on NeOn Methodology presented in this research report can be extended further to develop a tool capable of automatically generating all possible combinations for relations and concepts in functional requirements, as well as automating the process of constructing detection rules, and also in developing ORSD.
Despite the fact that, ontology-based software application developers currently have specific methodological guidelines that are helpful to them in defining functional requirements of the software applications they intend to develop, these guidelines are not sufficient to succinctly define functional requirements of ontologies and more work is envisaged in the near future to address this challenge.
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References
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Mapping DNA using restriction Enzymes and electrophoresis
Mary Smith
Chem I – Sect C
10/12/20XX
Sediment in Water – Lab #3
Koeck (Edit this part with your details)
Abstract
This laboratory report describes the experiment that was conducted using the restriction enzymes- restriction endonuclease- to manipulate the DNA molecules. The restriction enzyme has the capacity to recognize DNA sequences, and cleaving the DNA at that specific site. The endonuclease was used in conjunction with electrophoresis to map 2, 686 base pair of the pUC 19 plasmid. The plasmid cut into fragments, was separated using gel electrophoresis based on the charge and size.
Introduction
The first stage of DNA analysis for refined DNA such as gene expression and DNA sequencing is the construction of the DNA map. This has been done previously by scientists who used enzymes that are naturally occurring often referred to as restriction enzymes, to cut the large pieces of large molecule of DNA into small pieces. The fragments are then separated and sorted through the use of gel electrophoresis and the results obtained, they can be used to reconstruct the map of DNA molecule. This process is commonly referred to as mapping (Hughes and Moody, 2007).
This experiment was conducted using the restriction enzymes- restriction endonuclease- to manipulate the DNA molecules. The enzyme has the capacity to recognize specific DNA sequences, and cleaving the DNA at that specific site. The endonuclease will be used in conjunction with electrophoresis, which will be used to map 2, 686 base pair of the pUC 19 plasmid. The plasmid will be cut into fragments, which will be separated using gel electrophoresis based on the charge and size.
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Experiments (materials and methods)
Materials
Gel electrophoresis apparatus; Gel plates, comb to make wells, chamber cover, and chamber electrophoresis. Power supply with electrodes, deionized water, hot plate/ microwave, agarose, 250-Ml Erlenmeyer flask, and 100 ml graduated cylinder, pUC 19 plasmid DNA, restriction buffers, ice, restriction enzymes, molecular weight markers (lambda DNA), Ava II, Pvu II, gel loading dye (bromophenol blue), 15 1.5 Eppendorf’s, thermometer and metric rulers. Other common materials include, container that contains TBE solution, water bath (37 C), Floating rack, 60º C hot plate, cooler containing crushed ice, Polaroid camera with 667 Polaroid film, methylene blue stain, UV protective equipment, distilled water and non-frost free freezer.
Method
To make the Gel electrophoresis field, 1.0% of agarose was prepared as follows. To make 100 ml of gel, 1.0 g of the agarose was weighed and placed into the 250 ml glass beaker. 100 ML OF 1x TBE (Tris-Borate-EDTA) buffer was added. The mixture was heated in the hot pan for 30 seconds, shaking gently until all the agarose had melted completely. The solution was cooled and stored in a refrigerator.
The second day, pan was filled with water and was adjusted to 60 º C. The agarose was poured as follows; the agarose bottle that had been stored in day 1 was melted in the hot water bath. Firmly, the ends of the gel tray were sealed using a labelling tape, and a comb was placed on the slots, near the end of the tray, approximately, 40 ml of the agarose was poured in each of the tray, and was let cool for 15 minute to solidify.
During enzyme restriction stage, all enzymes and DNA aliquots were kept in ice. The four microtubes and reagents were labelled and stored as indicated below
Reagents
Ava II
Pvu II
Control
10 x Buffer
4 µl
4 µl
4 µl
DNA
4 µl
4 µl
4 µl
PvuII
0 µl
2 µl
0 µl
Ava II
2 µl
0 µl
0 µl
Water
30 µl
30 µl
30 µl
The micropipette was set to collect 4µl and 4 10X restriction buffer to each of the tube. The similar process was followed to load 4.0 µl of DNA, but using a different tube, to the control tube, 32 µl of distilled water was added whereas in the other reaction tube, 30 µl of distilled water was added.
The microtubes caps were closed and were heated in the 55 ºC for 10 minutes and were placed immediately on ice for 2 minutes. 2 µl of the appropriate restriction enzymes were added as shown in the grid above. The microtubes caps were closed, tapped the tube gently to bring all the liquid to the bottom, and were incubated overnight at 37 C.
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To run the electrophoresis, the tubes were collected and placed in the ice tubes and the gel electrophoresis field was set up. The microtubes were heated in 60º C water bath for 3 minutes. 4 µl of the loading dye was added in each of the reaction tube. 20 µl of each sample was loaded in the well, and the current was turned on for 30 to 45 minutes. The gel was stained using the methylene blue solution in 0.1 TBE and was stained for 2 hours at room temperature. Observations were made and photograph was taken.
Results
There were several errors that we done during the preparation of the gel electrophoresis field. The first preparation did not gel, and the mistake could not be traced. This led to preparation of the second gel, which eventually worked perfectly. The loading of the DNA was also somewhat troublesome due to shaking of the hands, but I managed to pull it off, with the assistance of laboratory technician and my peers.
The following observations was made
1=2-log DNA (0.1-10 kb) molecular weight marker
2=pUC19 digested with AvaII, at 2464bp and 222bp
2 cuts =pUC19 digested with PvuII at 2364bp and 332 bp
4 cuts =pUC19 digested with AvaII and PvuII at 2464 bp, 2364bp, 332 bp and 222bp.
The control field had no fragments. Thebase pair at which the cuts occurred is almost the same number as those predicted by the pUC 19 maps.
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Discussion
The pCU19is a 26866 base pairs, and thus its kb can be estimated to be 2.7 kb. It is small, and a high copy number in E.coli plasmid, which contain pBR322 and M13MP19. It has multiple cloning sites, where each unique enzyme can cause restriction, thus facilitating the recombinant technology (Omoto and Lurquin, 2004).
The microtubes containing DNA were heated ath 60C to break hydrogen bonds at the end of the linear DNA. Addition of the dye also stopped the restriction reaction from taking place. After running the gel electrophoresis, DNA being negatively charged, it migrated towards the cathode, inform of bands of specific size. The controls had no fragments because the DNA was not digested by any restriction enzyme (Twyman, 2009).
The following observations were made; there were two cuts when pUC19 was digested with AvaII, at 2464bp and 222bp. This was also the same when pUC19 digested with PvuII, and the cuts were estimated to be at 2364bp and 332 bp. In double cleavage, a total of 4 cuts were observed when pUC19 was digested with AvaII and PvuII at 23640 bp, 2464 bp, 322 bp and 222 bp.
The control field had no fragments. The cuts are almost the same base pair number as those predicted by the pUC 19 maps. However, when compared the results from the attached pUC 19 map, the AvaII points should be digested at 1837 bp and 2059 bp, whereas, PvuII at 306 bp and 628 bp. The minor deviations could be associated with accuracy of recording the base pairs. The 4 cuts obtained by the double digests indicate that restriction enzymes recognize DNA sequences and cut them at that site (Twyman, 2009).
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Conclusion
The study objectives were achieved, restriction activity took place. This technique is a very important technique as it helps on interacts with the basics of cloning techniques and tools used in molecular biology.
References
Hughes, S. and Moody, A. (2007). PCR. Bloxham: Scion.
Omoto, C. and Lurquin, P. (2004). Genes and DNA. New York: Columbia University Press.
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Activity Based Costing
Introduction
Activity based costing (ABC) is one of the accounting concepts where costs relating to operation processes are traced back to their causes. Costs are not directly assigned to the products instead they are assigned to activities that relates to their production in the company. The product costs are calculated from its usage of the activities involved (Jurek et al, 2012). ABC costing requires thorough knowledge of the business process that involves the ABC costing in order to calculate and determine the distribution of the costs (Garrison et al, 2009).
The ABC costing concept traces all the resources that have been channeled to the activities and later to the cost objects for accurate calculation of cost distribution. Each cost object represents a process or product while the individual activities are actions that must be executed to enable the creation of the cost objects. The resources in ABC are typically the objects that consumed in the manufacturing activities and ultimately results in such costs as labor, materials or equipment.
The concept of ABC in cost accounting is such that the cost objects in the manufacturing process consume activities that also consume the resources and later the consumption of the resources ends in costs (Weil and Maher, 2005).
ABC accounting provides the true costs of the finished products while also providing a detailed insight on the reasons of the current product costs. These details provide various aspects and opportunities to improve the products while also exploring ways of cost reductions.
The drivers in ABC cost accounting are applied in tracing the resources to particular activities while the activities are utilized to trace the resources to the cost objects. The resource drivers trace all the actual resources to the process activities while the activity drivers extend the trace to the cost objects. The drivers basically represent the actual causes of consumption hence permit accurate distribution of cost down the ABC chain. The drivers shown below in figure 1 represent some resources in ABC accounting and the activity drivers. The drivers must however be accurately correlated with the causes of production consumptions.
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ABC accounting is directly associated with values mostly in monetary terms, however in ABC costing the values can be modified to include additional measurements like environmental factors. ABC costing facilitates the dual calculations as it measures quantities of resources that have been consumed by the manufactured products. From the quantities calculated one can apply specific costs or the results of the environmental impact provided to calculate the required total cost. For example, in automobile production plant, a product can consume up to 4MWH of electricity amounting to $200 per MWH.
ABC Cost Calculations
Monetary
Resource
Resource Amount
Specific Cost
Total Cost
Electricity
4 (MWh)
200 ($/MWh)
$800
The specific impact to the environment may be 20 kg CO2 for every MWH. Hence the products total cost both in monetary and environmental terms would amount to $800 and 80kg of CO2. The expansion of the ABC costing aspect is materially applied in the processing industry to analyze Life Cycle Assessments or analysis of the plant’s manufacturing processes.
ABC Environmental Calculations
Environmental
Resource
Resource Amount
Specific Cost
Total Cost
Electricity
4 (MWh)
20 ($/MWh)
80 (Kg CO2)
The Paint Shop in Automotive Industry
The manufacturing processes in an automobile plant are divided into three important departments:
The Paint Shop
The General Assembly
Body Shop
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The body shop utilizes and transforms the basic raw materials that make up a vehicle into the initial structure of a vehicle. The protective coating is applied in the paint shop while in the final assembly plant of the factory other components are fitted before the vehicle finally rolls over to the show room. These components are like wheels, engines, gear boxes, headlights among other components. Each of the above departments has also different departments. For example, the paint shop has the following departments;
Application of ELPO
Sealing Application
Paint Booth
Post paint repairs that also include cavity waxing.
Pretreatment of the product
The pretreatment stage allows the cleaning of all the contaminants that have accumulated on the body of the vehicle. Phosphate is usually applied at this stage of production as primary coating to ensure a protective layer is evenly applied. The Electro Coat Primer Operation is applied to increase the vehicles paint effectiveness. Sealing and the other remaining processes are utilized to obtain a fine finishing of paint application. The other activities in the paint line are listed in table 1 below.
Activities in Paint line (Table 1)
Activities
A1 – Air Abatement
A2 – Light Building
A3 – Air Conditioning
A4 – Liquid Heating
A5 – Manual Sealing
A6 – Moving Air
A7 – Moving Liquid
A8 – Moving Product
A9 – Operating Robot
A10 – Lighting Process
A11 – Repairing Product
Each of the activities mentioned above have several other activities below them. The following are the activities under Air conditioning activities in the paint shop.
Example of Activity States (Table 2
Level 1
Level 2
A3 – Air Conditioning
A3.1 – Startup Air Conditioning
A3.2 – Production Air Conditioning
A3.3 – Setback Air Conditioning
A3.4 – Maintenance Air Conditioning
A3.5 – Shutdown Air Conditioning
To conclude, ABC costing has a wide range of applications. Numerous studies have been successfully undertaken to determine the flexibility of activity based accounting including the environmental metrics. ABC accounting can be applied to any manufacturing process and can also be expanded to include other non-traditional costs that are only associated with cost accounting.
Reference
Garrison, R., Noreen, W. & Brewer, P. (2009) Managerial Accounting, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin. 65 -70
