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THE ROLE OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE

The Role of Public Health in Health Care and Social Care

Public Health

Introduction

The concept of public health has grown in importance and stature since its inception in the UK. The main aim of public health is prevention of illness and diseases in the entire population as well as promoting and sustaining health of the citizens. This is facilitated by recognizing many social factors that contribute to health (WHO, 2015).

This paper aims at investigating the roles of different agencies that work within the community to reduce the incidence of diseases. This paper will investigate both non-infectious and non-infectious diseases which are widespread as well as explore the various strategic approaches and statistical methods applied to evaluate, monitor, and regulate the incidence of the diseases. The paper will also explore the various effects of illness and diseases in delivery of health care and social care services. The paper will put into consideration the current lifestyle in the community that impacts the delivery of quality health and social care services (Department of Health, 2013).

Roles of different agencies in the UK

Public health refers to science and art of ailment prevention and prolonging of life using planned efforts to help the society make informed choices. The main role played by the different agencies is to identify incidences of diseases within various communities. The different agencies involved in public health include International agencies such as World Health Organization (WHO) and European Union (EU); National level agencies (Government and UK Department of Health (DH) and the local authorities and local health trusts (Social welfare 2013).

The World Health Organization (WHO) has six core functions. To begin with, they provide strong leadership on critical health issues and engage in partnership especially in areas that are in need joint action. They are also responsible in research agendas that facilitate dissemination of knowledge on health issues.

The organization also sets norms and standards that should be used to promote and monitor the effectiveness of specific interventions of public health issues. The organization facilitates the establishment of evidence based policies that are ethical. This includes provision of technical support by catalyzing change and developing sustainable institutional policies. WHO also monitors the health situation and evaluates the current health trends (Forest & Denis 2014).

The European Union has the responsibility of complementing the national policies. It does so by helping the EU affiliated governments to achieve the established shared objectives, pool resources so that they can generate the scale of economies as well as tackle the shared challenges. The role of this international organization also includes promotion of healthier lifestyle, and ensuring equitable distribution of resources to tackle the serious health threats that are predominant among EU member countries (Social welfare 2013).

At the national level, the UK Department of Health (DH) leads the strategy, policy and outcomes of health improvement. The agency leads by establishing policies that protect the citizens from a range of health threats. It leads in emergency preparedness, providing health programs for Olympics and Paralympics et cetera. It helps the health care providers at the national level to harness the cutting edge in the advancement of medical science to improve health care. The agency also designs the systems for England public health.

The Department of Health (DH) helps the UK residents to have better and longer life. The role of the agency is to lead, shape, and provide funds for the healthcare system in the UK. This ensures that people have adequate support as well as helping to, maintain the dignity of the citizens. The agency also creates national policies and healthcare legislation. It also supports the integrity of the healthcare system by ensuring delivery of quality care and accounting for the funds provided to it by parliament in a way which represents the interests of the patients.

The agency also champions innovation and supports research and technology, transparency, openness, and honesty. This improves the out-patient care by establishing the safest and highest quality of healthcare services. Ultimately, the efficiency and productivity of the healthcare system is improved (Department of Health, 2013).

The local authorities have a convening role and also promote co-existence between the Local authorities and the GP consortia. The key role of the local authorities is to lead joint strategic needs assessments (JSNA) to ensure coordinated and coherent strategies. The agency also supports local voice and promotes patient’s autonomy. The local agency also leads on local health in order to prevent occurrence of diseases. The agency promotes the commissioning of the social care and Local NHS services to improve delivery of quality care (Reiner et al. 2013)

Epidemiology of infectious and non-infectious disease

Epidemiology refers to the study of distribution of infectious and non-infectious diseases, and the determinants of these health related events within a specified population, and application of research studies to control the health issue. Epidemiology involves studying of global patterns, risk factors, and preventive measures that can be applied to improve the health issue.

Non infectious disease is also referred to as non-communicable disease. This refers to a health condition that is non transmissible. More often than not,, most of non-communicable diseases are chronic and progress slowly. Examples include asthma, obesity, malignant disease. and cancer. Infectious diseases are highly contagious, which implies that they are transmitted from one person to another. They are often caused by pathogens. Examples of infectious diseases include HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, influenza, childhood diseases, MRSA, influenza, food and water borne diseases (Social welfare 2013).

UK is reported to have the highest level of obesity in the Western Europe. Obesity is a non-infectious disease and it refers to body mass index (BMI) that is between 25 and above. According to the Health and Social Care Information Centre, 24.9% of the population is obese and approximately 61.7% is overweight. The levels have increased in the past three decades, and it is projected that if intervention measures are not put in place, half of the population will be obese by 2050.

This trend is attributed to the fact that most people have adopted modern lifestyles which includes unhealthy dietary and physical inactiveness. Obesity is the biggest health crisis in the UK because it is also associated with other health complications such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disorders (National Obesity Forum n.d).

The most common type of infectious diseases is influenza. The latest epidemiological reports indicate that influenza has continued to increase considerably. The influenza virus is the leading cause of respiratory tract infections, which is associated with severe complications which lead to hospital admission and mortality. The internet based surveillance indicates that influenza affects 18.4 per cent out of a population of 1000 people. However, 20-44 people report higher rates of infection which is reported at 23.1 per cent out of a population of 1000 people (Social welfare 2013).

The effectiveness of different approaches as well as strategies of diseases control

There are various approaches being utilized by the Department of health in controlling obesity and influenza in the UK. Some of these approaches include screening, vaccination, legislation, education, and creating awareness and surveillances (Social welfare 2013).

The Department of health has established interventions that will help people make healthier choices by ensuring that they are in a position to make healthy dietary and to become more active. This includes programs such as Change4life. The department has established strategies that will help effective labeling of drinks and food which will help people to make informed choices.

The legislation requires the factories to include ingredients such as calories. The National institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) has established a series of initiatives that aims at reducing obesity. This includes improving the physical environment and leisure parks to improve the amount of physical activeness among the population (Public Health England 2014).

The departments at national and community level encourage the use of school based programs as the main strategy to tackle obesity. For example, the Croydon Healthy Schools program was established in order to ensure that local schools support healthy food programs and promote physical activeness. The public health agencies at the national level deal with four specific networks including food, physical activity, alcohol, and health safety at the workplace. These initiatives have helped people to adopt healthy lifestyles. In addition, regular education has helped to reduce discrimination as well as enhance self confidence among people with obesity (Social welfare 2013).

The Public health of England also conducts surveillances of the Influenza after every week to monitor the influenza activity at community and national level. Influenza is the leading cause of hospitalization in the UK. For this reason, the healthcare agencies at the government level (Department of Health) supported by the local authorities have developed annual a flu program that seeks to vaccinate individuals at high risk of developing influenza. The high risk individuals include the older people, infants and toddlers, pregnant women, immune-suppressed, and those suffering from cardiac diseases.

In addition, the program provides training to help the citizens in detecting signs and symptoms of influenza. The public health department also requires that any suspected case of avian flu must be reported to the nearest animal and Plant Health agency. This helps the agencies to effectively control the infection. A recent case of low severity (H5N1) avian flu was reported in Dunfermline early this year, but the agencies managed to control the infection by using restricted movement (Public Health England 2014).

The current priorities and approaches

The priorities for delivery of health services are influenced by evaluating the burden of a disease. The analysis of the community burden of disease provides comparable assessment of the cost of health, injuries, risk factors and mortality rates. This is normally done using the disability-adjusted life year (DALY). DALY that normally evaluates the number of years lost as a result of premature deaths within a certain time (Social welfare 2013).

According to DALY report in the UK, the leading health burden is mental illness, heart complications, cancers diseases and respirational diseases respectively. In 2010, the leading causes of DALY were cardiovascular disease, chronic osteoporosis (back pain), as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Most of these disorders are associated with unhealthy lifestyles such as poor dietary, alcoholism, smoking, and lack of exercises.

Therefore, the current healthcare priorities in the UK include preventive services for mental health, smoking, diet control, alcoholism as well as promoting physical activeness. The second priority is to improve the clinical services by providing adequate support for mental health services, respiratory disorders, and cardiovascular disorders (Public Health England 2014).

The approaches being used to provide healthcare include primordial prevention. This involves identification of legislation that aims at delivering quality services. Other approaches include education and awareness, environmental controls and social welfare. The second approach is through primary prevention. This primarily focuses on health promotion interventions such as health education on immunization, chemoprophylaxis, and serophaylaxis. Environmental modifications will help to protect the community from various hazards in the environment. The nutritional interventions and behavioral changes will ensure that people adopt healthy lifestyles (Social welfare 2013).

The other approach is the secondary prevention which mainly focuses on halting the progression of the disease and prevents complications. The main activities in this stage include screening tests, laboratory findings, and adequate treatment programs. The fourth approach is through tertiary prevention. This involves use of all interventions to limit disabilities and impairments associated with the health event and help promote a patient’s health condition.

This mainly focuses on interventions that prevent disability limitation as well as rehabilitative services. Rehabilitative services are coordinated through medical, vocational, educational, and social training measures to help the patient retain their functional ability to the highest level (Public Health England, 2014).

The approaches being used include monitoring and surveillances. Monitoring is used to describe the performance and analysis of measurements that are aimed at evaluating the environmental changes such as water quality and other forms of pollution, dietary intake et cetera. Monitoring also entails all other forms of measurements of health services and the extent to which patients adhere to the advice provided by healthcare professionals. On the other hand, surveillance is the inspection of the determinants of health, and the distribution of the other health related illnesses (Public Health England, 2014).

Relationship that exists between the prevalence of disease and the service requirements

There are considerably adequate healthcare resources including hospital, community health services, personal medical services, and community health services. The community health services providers (HCHS) and dental staffs are about 105,000. There are bout 41 300 healthcare providers who provide consultation services and an additional 53,000 who provide training services.

There is about 971,000 non-medical staff whereby 319,000 are qualified nurses, 136,000 are technical and therapeutic professionals, 187,000 in infrastructure support, and 36,000 are managers. In the new health and social care setting, these healthcare providers consist of clinical commissioning groups (Department of Health, 2013).

The UK health and well-being board brings together organizations to work in partnership in order to deliver powerful that advocate for the needs of communities and patients.

These healthcare professionals have combined efforts to help people lead healthier lives. This involves ensuring that people have adequate support, care and treatment as needed, and in the most compassionate, respectful, and dignified manner. The specialists are working together to ensure that they provide evidence based care. This is achieved by bringing in the multidisciplinary teams together in health and social care to manage healthcare efficiently and effectively.

This facilitates timely referrals which are important in reducing time for making diagnosis. Although there have been massive improvements in healthcare, the public health of England continues to be burdened by diseases such as obesity and influenza. This often calls for strategic frameworks and policies (Department of Health, 2013).

Impact of current lifestyle choices on the health care future needs

The UK people’s health is determined by their lifestyle choices. This is attributed to the increased globalization and busy schedules that make it difficult for people to engage in healthy lifestyle. For instance, obesity is associated with poor dietary and increased physical inactiveness. The food available in the UK today is just refined ingredients mixed with some chemicals. These food products are cheap, and taste very good that one cannot have enough.

This makes the food to become hyper-palatable which makes people eat them in high quantity due to food addiction. Food addiction is a complex issue that can be very difficult to overcome. This often leads to mental disorders and increases a person’s susceptibility to other infectious diseases such as influenza (Health Protection Agency 2010).

Obesity is associated with energy imbalance. The main variable factor and one that can be modified is physical activity. Most people are not active. Physical activity has continued to decline in developed countries. The pattern is being reflected in developing countries. Over the past decades, each household in the UK own second hand carts and appliances that help to cut on labor. Outdoor activities have also reduced considerably; consequently, one in every four people in the UK is at risk of becoming obese. The impact of physical inactivity affects the future of the healthcare industry because increases cardiovascular disease burden through the increased cost of preventive care (Department of Health 2013).

Most of the health complications are associated with behavioral risk factors. Chief among the behavioral risk factors includes smoking and binge drinking. It has been hypothesized that smoking helps in reduction of weight gain. However, these beliefs are over-simplistic. Both smokers and non-smokers are at risk of becoming obese if they feed on unhealthy foods and are physically inactive. The impact of tobacco smoking and alcohol affects the future of the healthcare industry because it increases the cost of preventive care (Enfield 2013).

Priorities for people in specific health setting

The well-being and health of the populace in this community are highly related to each other. According to WHO, health has a great influence on the nation’s economic development. The healthier a community is the more productive it becomes. The healthcare settings of a community are influenced by many factors such as communication, poverty and social services.

These determinants can be categorized by many physical factors such as the individual health factors which include hormonal imbalance, genetic disorders, and immune system. These factors increase people’s risks of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders. These factors also affect the behavioral, cultural and psychological factors. For instance, stress is a psychological factor whereas unsafe sexual behavior, abuse of alcohol, and smoking are behavioral factors that have an impact on an individual’s health. (Public Health England, 2014).

The environmental factors involve all factors that affect the wellbeing of humans. These include safe water and a clean environment. Other factors include chemical factors, biological and physical environment. The socioeconomic factors such as income affect the well-being of an individual. For instance, in the UK, health disparities are evident between the high income and low income earners. The high income households get better medication and education, and are less likely to be affected by infectious and non-infectious diseases (Social welfare 2013).

Priorities of elderly people’s health should be based according to the health issues facing the age group, and are projected to face the age group if not addressed adequately. Infectious diseases such as Influenza affects the elderly people especially those living in low economic zones. Such diseases are associated with long term effects; hence, they need immediate and appropriate health solutions such as preventive management.

Abuse of the elderly people is another issue that must be prioritized. The elderly people are abused physically, emotionally and psychologically. The protection agency must ensure that they are adequately prepared to help the frail human beings. This is to ensure that they are housed, fed, and their healthcare is taken care of (Paterson 2014).

Effectiveness of strategies systems and polices

The effectiveness of the policies that are implemented in taking care of the elderly involves enactment of policies by the various agencies of the public health. There are various agencies that contribute towards the enhancement of children’s health and are all working to meet the same goal. The partnerships established by these institutions are designed to facilitate incorporation of effective healthcare services.

These services include involvement of the PCTs, CCCs and other local authorities. Due to the modifications conducted in the white paper, these policies and systems have been found to be very effective in delivering care .However; there are some areas where the ground level implementation has not been successful. In such instances, there is need to establish more interventions to help implement the policies more effectively (Stewart, Cutler, & Rosen 2009)

Changes that could be established to improve the healthcare

The changes that are needed in the UK healthcare system are changes that will influence positive behavior. For example, there are limited opportunities that promote physical activity. In this context, the public health agencies should respond to the private sector to ensure that recreational facilities are not interfered with to ensure that there is enough space for physical activity. This includes maintaining of the cycle routes, sports areas, children play ground areas and pedestrianisation (Social welfare 2013).

The second priority is to change the local culture and beliefs of physical activity. Most people in the UK do not value physical activity. The public health agencies must put in place awareness programs that will help to ensure physical activity is valued by everybody in the community. The public health is also responsible for community safety. There have been few worries regarding personal security especially when exercising. The public health must liaise with the community groups and the police to help restore a safe community (Public Health England 2014).

The public health community must work in partnership with the groups such as educational institutions and communities to increase awareness on preventive measures such as healthy foods, physical activeness, and vaccination programs. The commissions should improve access to organic food at affordable prices especially among the socially marginalized people (Public Health England, 2014).

Task 3.4 Evaluation of an activity that have been implemented to promote behavior change

Under the Health and Social Care Act 2012, the main agency in charge of improving the health of the populace is the local authorities. They have a statutory function to improve public health by providing advice to the clinical commissioning groups. The local authorities are entrusted to deliver National Child Measurement Program. One of such program is “cooking from scratch”. This is an initiative established by NHS and Bristol county council.

The scheme targets to teach the low household income on ways to make simple healthy foods that can be achieved at specific budget. The program also trains the community on importance of physical activeness and adhering to vaccination programs. The program has been successful as it trains people from diverse settings including the elderly in community day care centers, staff working in these centers, youth clubs, and new mothers. This has helped to reduce the rates of obesity in this county (Public Health England 2014)

References

Department of Health, 2013. “Making mental health services more effective and accessible.” Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/making-mental-health-services-more-effective-and-accessible–2

Einfield, 2015. Health and wellbeing strategy. Retrieved from http://www.enfield.gov.uk/healthandwellbeing/info/4/health_and_wellbeing_strategy[ Accessed May 24 2016]

Forest, PG., & Denis, JL. 2014. Real reform in health systems: An introduction. Journal of health Politics, policy and Law 37(4). Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=74dd209f-1a28-44e5-ab25-1b9d89a63ad3%40sessionmgr113&vid=0&hid=126[ Accessed May 24 2016]

Health Protection Agency, 2010. What the Health Protection Agency Does? [Online]. Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/AboutTheHPA/WhatTheHealthProtectionAgencyDoes/ [ Accessed May 24 2016]

National Obesity Forum, n.d. Welcome to the National Obesity Forum [Online]. Available at: http://www.nationalobesityforum.org.uk/ [ Accessed May 24 2016]

Public Health England. 2014. Public health training for health protection and allied professionals. Retrieved from https://www.phe-protectionservices.org.uk/hpet/ [ Accessed May 24 2016]

Paterson, J. (2014). Strategies for enhancing the delivery of person –centered care. Nursing standard 28(39); 37-43. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=67611298-afa4-41a9-ab58-a986835b5bd8%40sessionmgr198&vid=0&hid=126[ Accessed May 24 2016]

Reiner, M., Et al. (2013) Long term health benefits of physical activity- a systematic review of longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health 13; 813

Stewart,S., Cutler, D. & Rosen, A., 2009. The New England Journal of Medicine. Forecasting the Effects of Obesity and Smoking on U.S. Life Expectancy [Online]. 361, p.2252-2260. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa0900459 [ Accessed May 24 2016]

Social welfare. 2013. “The state of health care and adult social care in England.” Retrieved from http://socialwelfare.bl.uk/subject-areas/services-activity/health-services/carequalitycommission/168545state-of-care-201314-full-report-1.1.pdf[ Accessed May 24 2016]

WHO (2015). An introduction to the World Health Organization. Retrieved From http://www.who.int/about/brochure_en.pdf[ Accessed May 24 2016]

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WORKING IN PARTNERSHIP IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE

Working in partnership in health and social care

Working in partnership in health and social care is a vital aspect. Partnership refers to a shared jointness and power, marked by respect for one another, divisions of roles, accountability and individual input. Different terms are used to define partnership including cooperation, shared learning, teamwork, participation and multi-disciplinary working. The staffs in healthcare have the responsibility to recognize the importance of promoting autonomy within the service users and the service providers.

They are not only expected to be attentive to their own roles but also learn to relate with each other’s within the within St Andrew’s healthcare facility. This is important particularly in the view of the unrest and cynicism observed in the NHS. Therefore, it is important for those concerned about their commitment in developing a mutual relationship for the good of the service users (Soni 2014).

For this reason, there is need to explore the philosophy that facilitate the staff to work in partnership at the St Andrew’s hospital. The philosophy is needed for several reasons but the ultimate goal is to providing quality care to the service users. The philosophy ensures that there is equity, quality and efficiency in the delivery of the healthcare and social care services. The philosophy is governed by ethics- a complex activity that is concerned with the moral obligations and dilemmas. Ethics in healthcare philosophy are governed by the ethical theories.

For example, the theory of deontology is concerned with the moral duty as well as the action rightness (Petch, Cook, and Miller 2013). Therefore, this theory suggests that a healthcare staff must always do what is morally right irrespective of the associated consequences. The other theory is the utilitarianism proposed by Jeremy Bentham, which is based on the principle of utility. Although these theories do not describe exactly on how a staff should behave, it gives the healthcare staff an understanding on how to motivate each other and pull ideas especially when confronted by ethical dilemmas and in accordance to ethical principles of autonomy, non-maleficence, justice and beneficence (Paterson, Nayda & Paterson 2012).

The working in partnership in health and social care at St Andrew’s hospital should be governed by the partnership philosophies such as respect, autonomy, and empowerment, power sharing, and making informed choices. The philosophy of empowerment involves sharing power with other partners who may not have the power. This philosophy is centered in healthcare service users and providers to enable them take greater charge of themselves.

It involves the process of recognizing, enhancing and empowering other people’s ability to meet their demands and to resolve their own issues with the available resources, making them feel in control of their lives. This enriching experience is associated with satisfaction and often leads to smooth partnership relationship (Robert& Cornwell 2011).

Reference

Cameron, A., Lart, R., Bostock, L. and Coomber, C. 2013. Factors that promote and hinder joint and integrated working between health and social care services. 1st ed. [ebook] Available at: http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/briefings/files/briefing41.pdf

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SOCIAL COGNITION IN ADOLESCENTS WITH ASD

Study Sample

Parents have great influences in their children social cognition. For this reason, the eligible participants for this study include adolescents diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), age 16- 23 years and together with their parents or the primary caregiver (Hartley, Schaidle, & Burnson, 2013; Loukas et al., 2015). The inclusion criteria for participants included the ability to communicate in English, and the adolescent is diagnosed with ASD.

Participant recruitment will take place at the community clinical settings. Emails requesting for participation will be sent to the adolescent’s parents/ caregivers diagnosed with ASD. The email will include the project’s description in detail, including the benefits and risks associated with their participation. The parents who are interested in participating will be requested respond to the email and will be contacted for official recruitment processes including the signing of the informed consent

Sample collection is an integral part of research design as it determines whether the research hypothesis will be appropriately tested. Therefore, it is important to establish a balance between an ideal sample and a convenient (Kandalaft et al., 2013). At the commencement of the study, the available study sample is estimated at ten pairs of participants, that is ten adolescents diagnosed with ASD and ten parents/caregivers of the adolescents diagnosed with ASD. However, due to unavoidable circumstances, the study sample may slightly less than the estimated number.

The study sample will be pretested using questionnaires to evaluate the adolescent’s social cognition ability at the baseline. This will be followed by the proposed intervention (training for adolescents and their parents for 15 weeks). After 15 weeks, a post-test and a focus group discussion will be performed to determine the impact of the intervention and to understand the challenges adolescent’s experiences during the transition.

References

Hartley, S. L., Schaidle, E. M., & Burnson, C. F. (2013). Parental Attributions for the Behavior Problems of Children and Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics : JDBP, 34(9), 651–660. http://doi.org/10.1097/01.DBP.0000437725.39459.a0

Kandalaft, M. R., Didehbani, N., Krawczyk, D. C., Allen, T. T., & Chapman, S. B. (2013). Virtual Reality Social Cognition Training for Young Adults with High-Functioning Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(1), 34–44. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1544-6

Loukas, K. M., Raymond, L., Perron, A. R., McHarg, L. A., & LaCroix Doe, T. C. (2015). Occupational transformation: Parental influence and social cognition of young adults with autism. Work, 50(3), 457-463.

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Impact of criminological research on social policy

Impact of criminological research on social policy

Criminological research can impact social policy in a considerable way, given that crime and criminal justice are generally considered social issues. While criminal justice is involved in studying crime, social policy aims at establishing how the society promotes the welfare of individuals. Both areas are also related to social problems that relate to crime and are concerned about how better responses can be undertaken to prevent crime (Wincup, 2013: 5).

Therefore, research in criminology provides useful findings on crime, criminal behavior, causes of crime, ways of preventing crime and how to deal with offenders in order to reduce crime, all which provide solutions that can be applied in social policy development to make the society a better place to live.

Sociology aspect: Criminological Research

Crime is considered a social problem and social policy concerns itself with addressing social problems. In this relation, criminology and social policy have a direct relationship in that criminology studies provide solutions for addressing crime in order to promote societal welfare. The application of criminological research provides a more comprehensive approach to identifying social problems that lead to crime.

It provides a more scientific approach in the collection of data, analysis and presentation, which provides highly relevant information for use in managing crime (Liebling, Maruna & McAra, 2017: 58). A majority of these interventions revolve around social policy and this implies that criminological research has significant implications on criminal research. This could also explain why criminological research as a course is offered together with social policy, given that they both have a beneficial relationship.

The more recent research on whether prisons are more useful or harmful in promoting reducing crime is an example of research in criminal justice that has a direct impact on social policy. This is because while the use of prisons has been predominant over the decades as a means of correction, statistics have also shown that the use of prisons has only resulted in overcrowded jail facilities and increased crime as witnessed in the rate of recidivism among former criminals.

In this relation, criminology research has also focused on determining social interventions that would be more effective in reducing crime such as poverty reduction, education, early child development programs, job creation, war on drugs, help for mental problems and community-based punishments for crime (Liebling, Maruna & McAra, 2017). This would impact social policy in that based on the recommendations from criminology research, it is possible to implement such measures to provide solutions that improve social welfare.

Such actions have been observed in the United States there is increased efforts towards addressing underlying social issues that influence crime. A notable intervention has been the implementation of prison education programs that ensure that prisoners are able to take reintegrate into the society through finding decent jobs (Davis, 2014: 1). The same applies for prison overcrowding, where criminological research has been prevalent and established that overcrowded prisons have led to more problems in the United States’ attempt to reduce crime.

The government has consequently called for action to address the problem of prison overcrowding to promote the welfare of prisoners and reduce deaths, injuries, immorality and recidivism associated with prison overcrowding. To address such issues, social policy must rely on findings from criminological research because they are more accurate and are based on well researched theories, such that interventions are likely to lead to better outcomes.

References

Davis, Lois M., et al. (2014). How Effective Is Correctional Education, and Where Do We Go

from Here? RAND Corporation, 2014, Report No. 564. Retrieved from https://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/criminal-justice/effects-prison-education-programs-research-findings

Liebling, A., Maruna, S. & McAra, L. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford University Press

Wincup, E. (2013). Understanding crime and social policy. New York: The Policy Press

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Museums and Political Actions

Museums are essential for effective communication, social life promotion and further learning about culture, politics and even sciences. Museums are normally connected to politics, and they are normally used as a tool to preserve historic political events. However, political actions taken against the policies of the museum causes more harm than good to its effectiveness. As much as the museum functionality is attached (Blee 2016).

According to Miller during the interview, museums have a great effect on the culture of different groups of people in the society (Miller 2017). In the American Muslim culture, the museum has a negative effect on the environment. Many activities are carried out in the museum, which may result in damage to the environment. The American Muslim culture has changed over time due to the changing environment.

This is also because the Muslim American is a minority group in the United States of America (Geraldine 2016). The main environmental struggle faced by the museum is the political greenwashing on how technological activities applicable in the museum are harmless to living and non-living organisms. Museums and political actions remain go hand in hand. The museum is used as an archive for the storage of materials that are not so environment-friendly, such as disposed of computers, cell phones, and wires. These are simply stored for history, probably to show the development of technology over time.

Museums and political actions: Environmental activists

This may cause environmental activists to advocate against that, which is banned will cause a massive drop in the museum industry (Smith and Font 2014). Therefore, museums should not be used to bring political divisions between people or even cause conflict and death. Instead, it should be used as a tool to show the refection of societal heritage as well as bringing all cultures, religions, and states together to share something in common. Furthermore, the museum may cause pollution to the environment through the technological materials used for artwork and scrap metals of used gadgets.

Measures should be put in place on how to prevent these health hazards that may be caused by the material in the museum and all political objections prevented from interfering with the activities. Every environmental and political activist should be banned from using the museum as a tool to achieve their agendas and strict policies against such needs to be established to retain the museum’s primary purpose for existence. Museum and political actions destroy the tranquility of museums. This also will enable the maintenance of local and international tourists who will help earn the national revenue (Limebeer, Perantoni and Rao 2014).

References

Geraldine Kendall (2016) Museums and their staff are paying the paying the price of low wages, http://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/newsanalysis/01062016-museums-and-their-staff-are-paying-the-price-of-low-wages

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Disabilities in Society

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Disabilities in Society

Introduction
Disability may take two different approaches depending on the frame of reference or the circumstances. The meaning of disability may take a bio-medical approach or a functional approach. For the purpose of this research paper, disability shall be assessed on two main points of view. First, a disability shall be defined as any condition that when judged on the basis of function, it renders an individual impaired in comparison to the typical or standard way of functioning.

Statistically, disability can be understood as a condition that renders an individual’s performance or functioning in a particular area to fall below the population average or the average performance of the general group in the same area. This impairment may be cognitive, intellectual, physical, mental disability, or some types of chronic diseases.

Disabilities are everywhere in the society. In learning institutions, there are students with learning disabilities. At the workplace there are individuals or employees with disabilities. While some disabilities originate from childhood or childhood experiences, some originate from the adulthood when an individual is already in the working-age. This research paper explores both scenarios and makes an attempt to draw a connection between them consequently assessing the policy implications of disabilities in the society and the practicability of these social policies in achieving their objectives.

The main aim of this research paper is to explore disability on a wider perspective and examine it with respect to the society’s attitude to disability then explores policy implications of the experiences of the disabled members of the society with a more inclination on the learners and those in the working-age.

Disabilities in Society

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Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework used in this research paper is based on the framework developed by Connors (2007), which traces disability in the society from the sociology of childhood and through the social relationship model while at the same time incorporating the aspect of difference in the model. Even though the Connors’ theoretical was basically focused on exploring the experiences of children with disabilities in the society, the model is fit for this particular study since it gives an appropriate approach to the roots of disability and provides a better understanding of the experiences disabled members of the society experience from childhood to adulthood.

Therefore, the theoretical framework of this paper is developed on the basis of the social model of disability and the social relational model of disability and incorporates the concept of difference to explore the subject of disability in the society. One part puts emphasis on the importance of the environment on the participation while the other puts emphasis on the significance of the quality of life.

The Sociology of Childhood

The majority of previous childhood studies have dwelled mainly on exploring and researching on the development of the child and the main areas of focus have been the child’s psychological development, social development and physical development. it is important to trace disabilities in the society from a childhood perspective because most disabilities originate from early days of human development.

However, as has been mentioned, the studies on childhood development did not put into consideration the disabilities that children acquire or are born with and which they live with into their adulthood. The studies mainly viewed children in adult eyes thereby giving children a passive role in their development. They were therefore viewed by the society as adults in training (Mayall 2002).

The notion that childhood, as opposed to biological immaturity, could be a result of socially constructed aspect that results from the interplay of factors like social class, individual’s gender and ethnicity only came to materialization in the course of the ‘sociology of childhood’. A number of studies (e.g. Mayall 2002 and James 1993) recognized that children possess a distinctive perspective and dynamically shaping their own lives.

These studies, which have provided a clearer picture of children’s accounts of their experiences, have enabled the society to realize and appreciate that the lives of the children in the society are not homogenous. This lack of homogeneity therefore necessitates studies that look at the children all their diversity (Brannen and O’ Brien 1995). Studies must pay special attention to the children’s experiences if at all the general themes in the lives of children should be understood.

This approach, according to Colver (2005) in his paper on social model of disability, brings out greater potential for understanding the social model of disability and integrating the understanding with the sociology of childhood and this in turn allows a better understanding of the experiences of the disabled children. The social model accentuates the significance of the environment to participation.

Disabilities in Society

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The social relational model of disability

Connors’ work (2005) was principally important to the achievement of this paper’s objective because of the extensive work laid out in the study relating to the experiences of the disabled people in the society. The author provides an extensive relationship between unequal social relationship and disabilities in the society. The author further likens this relations hip and its origins in the society to that or racism and sexism, which both result in social impositions of restrictions “of activity on the impaired people by the non-impaired members of the society” (Connors 2005).

These imposed restrictions could be through creation of barriers to the individual to do something or to being someone. Barriers could be created and imposed on the disabled individual to do something that is physical or economic. Such barriers could also be material barriers such as inaccessibility to buildings, transport, and these by nature will restrict the disabled person from undertaking activities related to the barriers created.

This point is further reinforced by the study carried by Bradbury et al (2001), who reiterate that creation of socio-economic barriers to the disabled members of the society is an impetus to prevalence of apathy and the notion that disabilities are a tragic accident and a mess to the enforcement of socio-economic policies.

Disabilities in Society

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Literature Review

Disabilities in Learning Institutions

Learning disability affects the intelligence quotient of the individual. It is a condition that leads to fall in individual’s intelligence quotient below the normal range. Brain is affected adversely which makes the individual unable to perform very well in various activities. Children with learning disabilities encounter difficulties in sensory information processing which in turn impacts on the ability of the individual to interpret various activities in the learning institution.

Learning disability limits individual ability to see, hear and properly understand what is been imparted to them in school like other normal students. It is important to take care of these persons in order to avoid severe impacts.

Duquette (1998) provides an explorative assessment of the various teaching techniques that should be used in the learning institutions that have students who have learning disabilities. It is imperative to understand the fact that children with learning disabilities are not very attentive, cannot realize their dreams by their own. They have to be assisted to learn various ways of doing things. Learning disabilities generally affect the process of information relay in the nervous system. This affects the way information is received, processed or communicated.

Disabilities in Society

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Allyn and Bacon (2007) posit that instruction intermarried with effectual teaching for students with learning disabilities calls for expert familiarity in the areas of spoken language and reading and proficiency in writing as well as specialized knowledge in handling math. This further calls for evidence based teaching within each area as proposed by Summer (2007).

As an instructor, it is important to realize that there are learning disabilities which encumber learners of average or above-average acumen in easily and reliably processing a range of types of information. For instance learners with dyslexia exhibit a perceptual deficit that scuttles sequences of letters or numbers. For this reason, it would be a big achievement for the teacher to understand how the learning disability exhibits itself and the methods that the student previously used to handle the disability in the past.

The instructor will only gain the knowledge of that if he discusses with student about the issue. In addition, it is vital that the instructor appreciates that learning disabilities do not stem from a learner’s intelligence (Allyn and Bacon 2007). They also don’t result from physical or emotional health of the student; neither are they as a result of the student’s cultural background or socioeconomic circumstances.

It is possible for learning disabilities to exist amid other disabilities. For example learners who have head injuries that are brought about by traumatic accidents may require adjustments (accommodations) similar to those provided to persons with learning disabilities.

Disabilities in Society

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Secondly, as supported by Hartman’s study (2008), there are a number of universal teaching techniques which may be very supportive and helpful in making learners with disabilities experience the necessary comfort in the classroom hence show maximum performance possible. First and foremost, while preparing the syllabus, it is important to incorporate a statement learning disability accommodation.

For instance it would take something like: “If you have a disability and would wish to have specific accommodations, kindly discuss this issue with the professor.” Such a statement would clearly act as an indicator to the students with disabilities that the instructor, mentor, tutor or teacher is at ease to discuss the potential need for accommodations. Additionally, it acts as a fillip to the students by encouraging them to talk about accommodations prior to the actual need for them.

The instructor carries the tool that can create an amicable environment for learning. For this reason, the instructor should inform the students in every meeting of every class about the Centre for Special Services (for students with disabilities), if any. The instructor may also be obliged to discuss privately with the students with learning disabilities more so those that have disclosed their condition and hence go further to ask them how the course could be made a good learning experience for them (Allyn & Bacon 2007).

This would be helpful in bringing confidence in them. Students with disabilities may most likely have a problem with time management. To help them out of this, the instructor should issue sufficient notice concerning due dates for assignments. The students may also find reading and writing to be quite hectic and time-consuming. The instructor should therefore allow for extensions for assignments so that such students do not feel punished for their disabilities.

Disabilities in Society

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It is not only in the classroom that the people with learning disabilities will have problems. Even in examinations and undertaking of assignments. Duquette (1998) advices that the instructor should consider alternate methods for the exams as well as the assignments so that the students with disabilities are permitted to have input into the dialogue about alternate methods (for instance allow for handing in of electronic exams for hard copies).

If the instructor encourages the students to play an active role in the classroom, it would be an impetus to their self- confidence and give them an opportunity to make it evident to others that they are not academically disabled. This would further enhance the student’s own learning (Abbott et al 2004).

For those students with visual impairment, it is appropriate for the instructor to address the particular student with his/her name. Apart from that, the students with visual impairment especially those with low vision should be provided with copies of overheads and board work. For easier follow-up of the lectures by the students, the instructor should allow them to audiotape the lectures. There are names whose spelling may not strictly follow conventions. Such proper names should be spelt out by the instructor for clarity to the students.

Disabilities in Society

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Abbott et al (2004) argue that visual aides may be necessary if the concerned students have hearing impairment (this may call for items like acetates and slides). Secondly, the instructor should make use of a microphone in a large room and understand that while such a student with hearing impairment speech-reads, she or he does not see the instructor’s lips and therefore the instructor should talk while facing the class rather than the chalkboard.

The instructor has a responsibility to extend his or her teaching expertise to the laboratory and in the fieldwork too. To achieve this, the instructor should ensure that when assigning group lab projects, it is done in such a manner that allows every individual of the group to contribute in accordance to individual member abilities. The laboratory equipment should be arranged in a way that makes them accessible to every individual and visible by everyone (Duquette 1998).

According to Summer, (2007), it is very important to employ appropriate teaching technique so as to ensure that students with specific learning disabilities can also get equal learning opportunity. These techniques are applied under different situations. Moreover, Hartman (2008) reiterates that these depend entirely on place where learning process is being carried out such as classroom, laboratory, examinations room and field work as discussed above. The technique to be used is predetermined to ensure efficiency (Hartman, 2008).

When students are in classroom, it is important for the institution to select courses in advance to enable the students with learning disabilities get enough time to translate them to audiotape or large print. The teachers should make syllabus in advance, short assignment sheets so that they can be used by these students (Duquette 1998). The lecturers should give lectures in very supreme way in that they write key phrases and lecture outlines on the overhead projector.

Disabilities in Society

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Disabilities in Society

As Hartman (2008) adds in his paper on student disability paper, when students are going to learn in the laboratory, it is recommendable that the students with learning disability are permitted to take a tour in advance so that they can learn safety concerns so as to avoid injuries. Lab projects should be assigned according to abilities so as to enable all students undertake their projects efficiently and complete in time. The institution should ensure that the lab equipment is arranged in a manner that all students can access all the equipments necessary for learning. Lecturers should give oral or written lab instructions.

Some past studies have recommended that students with learning disabilities should undertake their exams in an environment free of distractions (e.g. Summer 2007 and White et al 2000). The exams should focus on the skills and abilities of each student (Hartman 2008). Students with learning disabilities should be given extra time during the time of examination. Exams should be composed in a way that disabled students can easily access them and that they are clearly typed in large black letters with spaces between lines (Duquette 1998). The items in between should be double or triple spaced so as the students can easily read.

Teachers should be very sensitive to students with learning disabilities who may not be able to read aloud due to certain impairments. Teachers and lecturers have the obligation to discuss ways in which students with learning disabilities can participate in class work upon realizing their deficits.

Some of the most powerful tools that an instructor can develop include respect to the students, positive attitudes, flexibility and acceptance (Summer 2007, and Hartman 2008). In situations where the students are faced with teachers who mistrust them or who are not flexible, they (students) become disheartened and may easily fail to maximize on their performance.

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Disabilities in Society

Attitude towards Disability

Studies have shown that research into the area of disabilities in the society would be meaningless if the studies cannot lead to a quantitative contribution to the subject by creating a positive attitude towards disability and people with disabilities (Connors, 2005, and Hannon, 2010). In the study by Hannon (2010), the author posits that the key to improving the efficacy of the efforts pit into addressing the negative experiences of the disabled people in the society should focus on changing the attitudes to people with disabilities.

Hannon further observes that there have been persistent negative attitudes to disability around the world though the trend is improving with more awareness being put into action and governments as well as other stakeholders investing considerably in the creation of awareness in the area of disabilities in the society.

In another research study, White, Jackson and Gordon (2006) explore the implicit and explicit attitudes toward sportspersons with disabilities and they reiterate that there is a positive relationship between the attitude and the experiences of the athletes with disabilities. Their study further show that the prevalent attitudes, which are negative in nature, provide evidence that the members of the society that have disabilities are not yet fully integrated into the society especially given that they are expressed towards intimate relationships for the individuals with disabilities.

Disabilities in Society

Studies have indicated that more positive attitudes are expected when individuals who have disabilities voluntarily get together with other members of the society who have disabilities. Negative attitudes among the people with disabilities deserves special attention since it is likely to slow progress towards equality when it is the disabled people who have negative attitudes about disability. It means policy making also slows down since the campaigns must target the negative attitudes from the individuals without disabilities and those with disabilities. The campaign is all about the change of the mindset.

The attitudes could be related top employment where barriers have been created to enhance the socially constructed boundaries within the workplaces or the society in general. Appropriate support mechanisms have been explored by Hannon’s study (2010) as a way that can help employers to have positive attitudes towards those with disabilities and disability as a whole. Hannon (2010) argues that if such mechanisms are put in place the welfare of workers that have intellectual and mental health can be improved.

To support this idea by Hannon, Corrigan and Gelb (2006) argue that the welfare of the mentally incapacitated individuals can be improved through the mass approaches that target employers and the society in general through specific group targets.

Disabilities in Society

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Throughout the body of research that has been carried out in the past it is evident that a number of interventions techniques are common for all the authors in the studies. These intervention techniques have been proposed to influence attitude formation in the society and they include direct contact with the members of the society with disabilities and those that do not have disabilities (Connors, 2005, Hannon, 2010 and Blessing et al, 1999).

The study by Blessing et al (1999) specifically mentions legislation and providing support for the participation of the people who have disabilities and they should be encouraged and supported to participate in all spheres of the society. Besides this support, another intervention technique is to ensure that the society is void of any structures of segregation and discrimination against disability or individuals with disabilities.

Encouraging increased political organization and extensive debate and discussion in academic and public realms focusing on disability issues. Since each of the interventions proposed by the studies is targeted to play a particular and vital role in generating positive attitudes to disability in the society, every effort must be made to translate research evidence into actual practice.

Disability and the Right to Full Human Development

All reasonable advances to attaining the full participation of individuals with disabilities incorporate doing away with all the socially constructed obstacles to achieving human potential. These obstacles may take various settings that include environmental, political or psychological constructions. They may also be educational in nature, institutional and social.

Doing away with these barriers provides the people with disabilities with access to the fundamental conditions needed to operate as independent and responsible people. These essential conditions include education, housing, working conditions, impartial and fair remuneration for work, justice, impartiality and the chance to be involved in civic and other socio-cultural aspects in day-to-day life. This has been documented as a proper way of ensuring socio-economic security and social inclusion of the individuals with disabilities.

Disabilities in Society

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Social integration is an important aspect of the human development and this can be facilitated through participation of the individuals with disabilities in physical activities and sports. According to Hannon (2010) social integration of the disabled members of the society through such events as sports and physical activities also helps in bridging the cultural boundaries that create barriers in human interaction and bolsters efforts that aim at overcoming prejudice or discrimination in the society against that have diverse characters.

It is through these social interaction opportunities that the individuals (whether those who have or who don’t have disabilities) can learn social issues such as fair play and teamwork and gain more knowledge on solidarity as a strength. In addition Rosenbaum (2009) while looking at childhood disability and social policies argues that social interactions that involve many members of society coming together help the members of the society to understand and appreciate the needs of the other.

These perspectives echo those taken by O’Toole (2006), who argues that socio-cultural and civic participation are more profound to the aspect of human development than most individuals may just think of culture as a part of going or not going to the movie theater. O’Toole supports the idea of these interactions being important in supporting human development by arguing that sport is essential in improving education while paving the way for more integration between and among members of the society and cultures.

Disabilities in Society

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Material Barriers

The disabled members of the society may be faced with situations that seem to create a social barrier that hinders them from achieving an objective that would help them in fulfilling their fundamental needs in the society (Swain et al 2004). Studies have showed that social barriers have a very restricting aspect and need to be identified to a particular setting of the external social world such as in the employment environment, in educational setting (institutions of learning), transport and housing among other settings.

In their study, Connors and Stalker (2003) focused on the barriers that are restricted to learning institutions environment and came up with four barriers they considered significant in impacting the lives of the disabled students negatively. The researchers noted that lack of access to recreational facilities and clubs is a major barrier more so for teenagers. Another factor that plays a major role as a barrier is the transport difficulties. Scarcity of after-school activities that the disabled in learners can creatively engage in is also a major barrier in the learning environment.

Communication being a major element in human interactions, it also becomes a barrier the disabled individuals do not get the support they need to communicate effectively and this further affects ability to interact hence limiting extent of human social development. Apart from the learning institutions, barriers can also be seen in the employment environment or the workplace (Swain et al 2004).

Practical Application
While the government or the society may come up with social policies to address the plight of people with disabilities and their rights, the society is not stagnant but a constantly changing and dynamic that the relevance of a policy may have to be revised from time to time to incorporate some of the realities that come up as these changes in the society are embraced.

The practical application of effective disability policy is impeded by a number of hurdles. Some of these hurdles relates to the working of the social policies while some challenges lie in the implementation. Coming up with a consistent policy goal has been an obstacle to the effectiveness of the social policy programs that address the rights of the individuals with disabilities.

Disabilities in Society

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Prior to the passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act, it was commonly believed and held as wisdom that working-age people who have disabilities were not able to work and therefore not expected to work. The Act however challenged this notion based on a key input from proponents who contended that the chief barrier to employment was the unequal access to jobs and not a worker’s impairment as was commonly construed.

These proponents felt that to say a worker is disabled was to fail o accommodate particular citizens in the society by constructing a social barrier that had multifaceted impact on the society. The impact could be economic, unequal wealth distribution, unequal access to employment that creates huge disparities in income among other factors.

According to the proponents of the ADA, social policies addressing the rights of the disabled in the society had a practical application if everyone is provided equal rights in all spheres of the society because the disability-transfer population would be zero. However, an important and equally disturbing question is whether the disabled members of the society should categorically be expected to work and this question concerns the rights and responsibilities of the disabled people who are of the working-age.

Disabilities in Society

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Social Policy
The society is highly dynamic and the first step in having a social policy for disability is the creation of a common understanding of the terms and related terms. By having legal definitions of disability and other terms such as impairment, it creates a common point of reference since the society understands disability very differently from the way the policy documents would put. Therefore, social policy programs have their definitions of disability and these definitions provide boundaries of who is covered under the program.

For instance, Americans with Disabilities Act and Disability Insurance policy both have definitions of disability that allows them to cover a given set of individuals with disabilities. The society’s understanding is different and that is why special efforts must be put into action to ensure negative attitudes to disability are dispelled. For this reason, the government must, from time to time to ascertain that there are measures guaranteeing the social and economic welfare of the disabled members of the society.

Since the advent of the pragmatic social policy and particularly between 1989 and mid 1990 several changes were made that actually showed how disability policy is a changing and dynamic aspect of the society. The government issued three key documents and made other far-reaching proposals targeting the economic welfare of the disabled in the society and their social welfare as well. Nevertheless, the disabled people have not had homogenous reactions to the social policy changes made in past.

For instance, in the United Kingdom, some changes were made in 1990 which aimed at extending the benefits to the disabled people in the UK by proposing to take care of the extra costs of disability and provide other supplementary allowances to the disabled people who work in low-paid work (Hannon 2010). In the same country, there was the caring for peoplepolicy document, which focused on procedures for evaluating “the social care needs of disabled people and the development of care packages set against the background of local authorities’ limited resources” (Hannon 2010).

Disabilities in Society

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In the United States, the rights of the disabled people in the society are protected by the American with Disabilities Act- ADA of 1990. This Act extended civil rights protection for the disabled people against being discriminated against at the place of work and in employment. The passage of the ADA-1990 characterized a clear effort to transform the spotlight of US disability policy further than income transfers for individuals with disabilities who stayed out of the labor market(Oliver 1999).

The focus was rather put on the employment support for people with disabilities who faced disability-related barriers at their places of work that impeded employment. The point underlying this change in focus was that by eliminating disability- related obstacles to employment, people with disabilities would have increased freedom to opt for work over the benefits receipt that disability attracted.

In spite of these efforts, the biggest influence of federal government social policy on individuals with disabilities is still being felt through the Disability Insurance (DI policy) and through Supplemental Security Income (SSI). While the DI is a social insurance plan that targets the regularly employed members of the society who might experience a disability that could entirely prevent them from working and SSI is a categorical welfare plan that offers benefits to those who are completely prevented from working by their disability; both programs were founded under the Social Security Act (1935) even though SSI was created under Title XVI while DI under Title II of the Act.

Disabilities in Society

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Despite the good intention of the social policy programs in addressing the issues that affect the disabled people with respect to employment, there have been some arguments that some evidence indicate that these programs have not had considerable impact on improving the employment opportunities of the individuals living with disabilities (e.g. Burkhauser & Daly 2002). The authors have argued using the 1990s data, which shows that employment rate among people of the working-age, plunged while the benefits rolls and expenditures went up. The authors call this circumstantial evidence nevertheless.

Social policy that targets disability in the US incorporates two main components one of which is the employment protection. The other component comprises transfers. The federal disability transfers are limited only to those individuals who have disabilities that prevent them from functioning in a substantially gainful way. However, ADA (1990) provides a much broader employment protection for those with disabilities and also targets a broader group of individuals with disabilities. It includes even individuals who have the capacity and ability to work in the labor market. The following analysis looks at the social policy in terms of the transfers and employment protection on the basis of the available social policy programs.

DI and SSI

These two policies trace their origins to the 1935 Social Security Act of 1935. The two social policy programs are managed by the Social Security Administration that provides qualifications for eligibility. According to the SSA, “the inability to engage in substantial gainful activity, by reason of a medically determinable physical or mental impairment that is expected to result in death or last at least 12 months” (Social Security Administration, 2000).

Therefore, to qualify for eligibility, an applicant must be impaired such that they cannot in any area that is recognized within the economy and for which hold qualifications with respect to their age, education and experience in the area of work. In addition, the programs only start issuing benefits after a mandatory five–month waiting period. Upon request for application for disability consideration, the officials and the applicant gather sufficient information and then the applicant feels the appropriate form after which the application is passed over to state agency for determination verification of the disability.

The criterion for determining eligibility for disability benefits is homogenous across all the states while the results of the process vary from one state to another. The two programs have different goals even though they share same administration center and eligibility criteria. The object of the Disability Insurance is to offer qualified members with “earnings replacement insurance” when they exit the labor market due to disability. The benefits of this program are provided through a special tax on the payroll and contributed by the employer and the employee.

Disabilities in Society

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Americans with Disabilities Act- ADA

This Act provides a broader definition of disability hence covers a broader set of individuals with disabilities. According to the Act, disability is considered to be any physical or mental impairment that significantly limits an individual or individuals key life activity, a verification of such an impairment, or being considered as having such an impairment. To this effect, Title I of the Act obliges employers to make reasonable considerations to employees with disabilities except where such accommodations would cause unwarranted hardship on the normal operation of business.

Conclusion

The results of this research shows that the reaction of the society towards disabilities and individuals with disabilities plays a major role in determining the success in elimination of the social barriers that are constructed by the same society and which impede the achievement of equity within the workplace, political environment, learning environment, civic and social arena.

The research further established that the effective practical application of the social policies and other social initiatives established by non-governmental institutions depends on the seriousness with which the policies are passed and implemented. For the students and learners with disabilities, most of policy changes that need to be made are explored within the literature with reference to the various studies that have focused on the improvement of the welfare of the students and learners with disabilities. The changes include making accommodations within the curriculum and teaching techniques.

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Reference:

Allyn & Bacon, G. (2007). Contemporary Issue in Curriculum. London: Trade paperback Publisher, 131-167

Bradbury B, Norris K, & Abello D. Socio-economic disadvantage and the prevalence of disability. Social Policy Research Centre. 2001. www.sprc.unsw.edu.au/reports/Report1_01.pdf.

Colver A. (2005). A shared framework and language for childhood disability. Journal of Developmental Medicine Child Neurology, 47(11):780-4.

Connors, C. and Stalker, K (2003) The views and experiences of disabled children and their siblings: a positive outlook. (London, Jessica Kingsley)

Connors, C. and Stalker, K. (2003) Barriers to ‘being’; the psycho-emotional dimension of disability in the lives of disabled children, paper presented at Disability Studies: Theory, Policy and Practice, University of Lancaster, 4-6 September.

Corrigan, P., Gelb, B. (2006) Three Programs That Use Mass Approaches to Challenge the Stigma of Mental Illness. Journal of Psychiatric Services, 57, 393-398

Dowling, M. and Dolan, L. (2001) Disabilities – inequalities and the social model. Journal of Disability & Society, 16 (1), 21-36

Duquette, C., (1998). Teaching Students with Disabilities. Journal of Teaching Technologies 2(3)

Hannon, F (2010). Literature Review on Attitudes towards Disability. Dublin: University College Dublin, University of Westminster Press.

Hartman, R. (2008). Disabled Students’ Program. New York (NY): Merrill Trade Publishers

Rosenbaum, P (2009) Childhood disability and social policies. British Medical Journal, 338 (1020)

Summer, C. (2007). Student Disability Programs. Texas: Texas Tech University Press.

Swain, J, French, S, Barnes, Colin & Thomas, C (2004). Disabling Barriers, Enabling Environments. London: Sage Publications

Watson, N., Shakespeare, T., Cunningham-Burley, S., Barnes, C., Corker, M., Davis, J. and Priestley, M. (2000) Life as a disabled child: A qualitative study of young people’s experiences and perspectives: final report to the ESRC, Department of Nursing Studies, University of Edinburgh

White, M.J., Jackson, V., Gordon, P.J. (2006) Implicit and Explicit Attitudes toward Athletes with disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation 72 (3) 33-40

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European Union Social Charter

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European Union Social Charter

The Importance of the European Union Social Charter to the US

As a companion to the European Convention on Human Rights, which deals with civil and political rights, the European Union Social Charter is a treaty of the Council of Europe that protects fundamental social and economic rights (Verhaeghe, 2016). The protection of vulnerable individuals, such as the elderly, children, people with disabilities, and migrants, is emphasized throughout the Charter.

It stipulates that the above-mentioned rights be enjoyed without prejudice (Verhaeghe, 2016). It protects a wide variety of human rights, including those pertaining to employment and working circumstances, housing, education, health, medical aid, social protection, freedom of movement, and poverty alleviation. It emphasizes the protection of vulnerable individuals such as the elderly, children, people with disabilities, and migrants (Verhaeghe, 2016).

Within the Council of Europe, the Charter treaty system is one of the most commonly acknowledged human rights sets of norms. The fact that 43 of the Council of Europe’s 47 member states are parties to either the 1961 Charter or the Revised Charter demonstrates widespread support for social rights (the council of europe, 2018). The Charter is based on a ratification mechanism that allows States to pick which sections they are ready to embrace as enforceable international legal requirements under specified conditions (the council of europe, 2018). They are urged to adopt all of the Charter’s contents gradually.

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It is critical for any US companies doing business with the European Union to be well aware of the European Social Charter. The European Union is directed by the charter’s guiding regulations, which must be followed by all enterprises operating within the EU to avoid further complications (Wright, n.d.).

The success of the United States corporation in this region is primarily reliant on the region’s many resources. Employees for their firms are an example. When hiring, they must ensure that the charter’s work norms are followed, such as fair pay for equal work, labour rights, non-discrimination against particular groups in society, parental leave, and working hours (Wright, n.d.).

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For decades, the European Union has been the United States’ top economic partner in terms of overall bilateral trade. In 2016, the United States purchased $592 billion in goods and services from the EU and exported $501 billion, accounting for around 19 percent of total US trade and 19 percent of GDP (Wright, n.d.). One of the most striking aspects of this industry is that about a third of it takes place within individual businesses.

It reflects multinational corporations sending items to themselves in order to service their domestic markets or as inputs for domestic manufacturing (Wright, n.d.). This form of commerce is vital because it supports hundreds of thousands of people on both sides of the Atlantic by acting as the backbone of a broad network of corporate ventures. It’s also a network that drives the global economy: practically every nation on the planet uses the EU or the US as its principal trading partner (Wright, n.d.).

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Furthermore, through two separate innovations, new shipping technology and new global institutions, the U.S.-Europe trade connection set the framework for the present system of international commerce (Wright, n.d.). On the technological front, the standard shipping container’s debut in the 1960s ushered in the so-called “second wave” of globalization.

The US Army developed this underappreciated technology in the 1950s and honed it across Atlantic maritime routes. Massive economies of scale in shipping were gained simply by standardizing the size and form of shipping containers and creating port facilities and ships to transport them (Wright, n.d.). As a result, container ships the size of major towns are now sent to massive deep-water ports all over the world via smart logistics.

In conclusion, the importance of United States firms dealing with European unions to be aware of the European Social Charter is critical to ensure the success of the company as well as of the nation as a whole. Following all the guiding rules set by the charter during the company operations will help the nation to remain operational in the region as well as

References

Verhaeghe, P. (2016). caritas europa. Retrieved june 15, 2021 from https://www.caritas.eu/european-social-charter-the-tool-to-achieve-social-justice/

Wright, G. (n.d.). The Conversation. Retrieved June 15, 2021 from https://theconversation.com/the-us-is-a-whole-lot-richer-because-of-trade-with-europe-regardless-of-whether-eu-is-friend-or-foe-99829

the council of europe. (2018). Retrieved June 15, 2021 from https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-social-charter/about-the-charter

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MOBILE PHONES AND SOCIAL LIFE

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Mobile Phones and Social Life

How did mobile phones change our social life?

Introduction

In sociology, social life refers to the interpersonal relationships of individuals, or group of individuals in a social setting such as family, community and society Macionis & Plummer (2005). Since human beings are social animals, the tenor of social life is one of the most vital influences in their lives. This is because without durable and positive relationships, the social structures are bound to fall apart. The nature of relationships in social settings influences all other factors in life.

Wajcman et al (2007) argues that, it is undisputable that among many inventions, mobile phones have diffused rapidly into people’s life across the world. As a result it has impacted on people’s lives greatly in all aspects; social, political, cultural, and economic. This research focused on how mobile phones have changed our social life. In order to have a better understanding of this research question, it is important to use sociological concepts and theories.

The theories appropriate for this discussion are functionalism, symbolic interaction, and conflict. In relation to functionalist theory, it is true that mobile phones have changed the way people function in the society; they have increased the scope for work and flexibility of families through enabling of coordination of tasks, schedules and time Wajcman et al (2007).

Mobile Phones and Social Life

These devices have diminished the boundaries between people and also between work place and personal life. In regard to symbolic interaction, Sheldon and Vryan (2003) observe that human beings are understood best based on their relation to their environment. They further note that people act toward things according to the meaning those things have for them; the meanings are derived from social interaction.

Conflict theory describes how mobile phones have brought about differences and social problems in the society Harrington (2005). According to social issue scholars and commentators, mobile phones have become a threat to quality of social life even though it provides opportunities for integration in the society. My thesis is thus informed by how these theories describe the research question and the responses from respondents of diverse walks of life. My thesis is: Mobile phones have changed our social life in a positive way.

Mobile Phones and Social Life

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Elaboration

In researching my topic, I consulted variety of academic sources including the lecturer’s notes, sociological books, and related internet sources. In addition, I conducted a sample survey among the students. I administered the sample questionnaires to the selected students in order to obtain their opinions on the issue. I administered the questionnaires to all of my classmates while I selected samples using random sampling technique among the students of the other courses and academic years.

Since, I understand the fact that people have different perceptions on various issues which are in most cases informed by the cultural and social orientation and knowledge backgrounds among other factors, I considered various aspects. First, how mobile phones have impacted different aspects of individuals’ lives? Secondly, how long has an individual accessed the mobile phone? Lastly, I considered the frequency of mobile phone use by an individual.

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Conclusion

From the research I conducted I obtained the following results: 90% of respondents made at least a call a day; 81% either sent or received at least one text message in a day. It is important noting that there was significant percentage of calls made and received and messages sent or received in a day with 72% making or receiving more than two calls a day while 65% sending or receiving more than two messages a day.

The respondents cited the following as the main reasons why they used the mobile phones; one, for leisure or social purposes such as managing family, maintaining contact with extended family, and balancing personal and work life (54%). Two, work or study related uses (31%). Third, other reasons such as playing games and entering lotteries accounted for 15%.

To show how important mobile phones was important in social life, the respondents said that without them life would be unimaginable. As a matter of fact, 99% of respondents admitted they cannot live without mobile phones. Therefore, it is evident that mobile phone use is important in people’s lives as it helps them coordinate their daily activities effectively in addition to providing opportunities for relaxation.

Mobile Phones and Social Life

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As a result of the research, my perspective on myself as a member of a society changed. I realized that indeed human beings are social animals and that is why they also seek to interact with each other at any opportune time. It gave me an insight that even before the invention of mobile phones human beings had a way of communicating and coordinating their daily affairs. However, it reminded me that human beings have always sought a better way of communicating, interacting and having a better social life.

Invention of mobile phones and other communication devices such as computers is a proof of this argument. In regard to mobile phones and social life, I realized that as a human being living in this information age, mobile phone is virtually indispensable in social life and therefore I cannot do without it just like most members of the society cannot. Mobile phones make life easier and enable us conduct our activities without engaging in much of physical movement. Indeed, mobile phones have changed our social life in a positive way.

References

Harrington, A. (2005). Modern Social Theory: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Macionis, J., & Plummer, K. (2005). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Harlow: Pearson Education.

Sheldon, S., & Vryan, K. (2003). The Symbolic Interactionist Frame. New York: Plenum Publishers.

Wajcman, J. et al. (2007). The Impact of the Mobile Phone on Work/ Life Balance. Retrieved from www.politicsir.cass.anu.edu.au , on October 17, 2011.

Sample Questionnaire

Do you make or receive at least one phone call a day, and/ or send or receive at least one message a day? ______________________________
Do you make or receive more than two phone calls a day, and/ or more than two messages a day? __________________________
For what purposes do you use you mobile phone for? Kindly list most if not all of the purposes_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Can you live without a phone? (Yes or No)___________ Briefly, explain your answer______________________________________________________________

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Divorce among Christians Research Paper

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Divorce among Christians

Undoubtedly, religion is, and continues to be, a fundamental element in most marriages in different parts of the world. As an institution, marriage is crucial to human existence and further serves as a crucial avenue for people to partake in God’s creative activities through creation. God’s command, ‘Be fruitful and multiply’ (Genesis 1: 28), can only be fulfilled in the context of marriage.

As a result, marriage is considered a precursor to the formation of a family, and given this, all cultures recognize its importance despite relativism. Among Christians, marriage is expected to be a life contract, hence the phrase, ‘till death do us part.’ This implies that divorce or separation is no option regardless of the circumstances.

However, the divorce and separation rates reported in today’s society have become problematic to Christians as marriages are crashing over irreconcilable differences. The socio-ethical impact of divorce is apparent, and solutions are elusive, regardless of the various measures applied by the Church, marriage counselors, and other concerned individuals or groups to minimize its recurrence.
As an African country, Ghana thrives with a rich cultural and religious heritage that informs and governs its people’s lives and activities. Culture and religion are significantly intertwined in a system referred to as religio-culture, which, when translated to marriage, highlights numerous challenges that include changes of family, ethnic group (clan, village, or tribe), and residence establishment in a new house by the newly wedded couple.

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[What page is this from? I doubt if Brako said religio-culture breeds challenges for marriage] Nonetheless, different researchers concur that a correlation between restrictions, dreams, agencies, and realities serve as the pillars to family dynamics in transnational African migration to the United States or European countries.

Migration to an international destination produces profound social changes in receiving societies. As pointed out by sociodemographic studies, international migration can significantly increase divorce due to various reasons. Among the reasons identified include the fact that moving entails a stressful and life-changing event that leads to a higher divorce likelihood, especially when international borders are crossed.

Divorce among Christians

Additionally, migration policies applied in different nations have become more stringent, making it challenging for families to migrate. As a result, more couples and families end up separated geographically and challenged with the need to arrange family life transitions, which causes marital stress and eventually divorce [Source?] Therefore, this chapter’s essence entails exploring migration issues impacting Ghanaian Christian couples’ marriages in North America.

Divorce among Christians

It will determine the factors or stressors leading to distress and instability in marriages, including intimate conflict between couples, separation, or divorce among Ghanaian Christian couples who immigrate to America. Moreover, the project will analyze the role played by migration, whether the interpretation of marriage and divorce in biblical scriptures factors in the experiences of African’s traditional values and cultural norms.

These will be coupled with the determination of the steps the Church has taken to revert such occurrences and optimally address the issue. [That is not the purpose of this chapter. This chapter is to use Scripture to provide rationale for the project. This whole page is not needed]

Divorce among Christians

The Biblical Rationale
The increase in globalization and migration among Africans to other countries has contributed to socio-cultural dynamics affecting their marriages, leading to separation and divorce. Specifically, marriages have become unstable while divorce rates have skyrocketed [Really, where did you get this from, source?] among American populations in industrialized areas, particularly for unemployed women. As pointed out by König & and Regt, [Use their full names at first appearance] African couples in the diaspora are constantly grappled with numerous challenges in their marriage due to intimate partner violence as one of the significant factors driving high divorce rates. As a holy institution, the foundation of marriage traces back to the Biblical Eden, followed by several other analogies implying God’s decision and take on the union between man and woman. For instance, in Ephesians 5: 22-23, God likens marriage to the Church, while in Luke 14: 7-14, the parable of the wedding feast describes an eschatological rendition. Despite the significance of married highlighted, Arugu points out that each society faces distinct situations characterized by falling marriages, and couples can no longer tolerate each other, leading to divorce.
Common Views for the Different Interpretations [Wrong sub sectioning]
Although different opinions and ideologies exist on interpreting B biblical [Bible is B, biblical is small b] teachings on marriage and divorce, Christians generally agree on various aspects. On the one hand, Christians agree that the intended design for marriage, as put forth by God, comprised a covenant union [But in your conclusion and elsewhere, you said is a contract, stick to marriage as a covenant and why that impacts quality and stability, where in Scripture that it say a covenant, not just what “Christians” say] between a man and a woman for the rest of their lives. Specifically, Genesis 2: 24 exemplifies the one-flesh union that consists of one man and one woman who come together to establish a lifelong covenant. [This is where technical commentaries are needed. The source you mentioned does not deal with theological of covenant so why is it here? Please don’t make things up, not good] This union portrays a bond that should not be separated and that follows a design meant to promote the most fulfilling and satisfying life for humans. Thus, it is considered an elaborate depiction of God’s promise and loyalty to his people and the Church through Jesus. [How is this related to the dissertation or justify the need for the project?]
On the other hand, even though divorce is legal, [On other pages you mentioned that irrespective of the issues there is no divorce, which is which?] biblical teachings urge people to avoid it at all costs. Divorce among Christians is considered failure to adhere to God’s command and design for marriage and sin that has rendered humans unable to live as per the standard stipulated in scriptures such as Genesis 1 and 2. Specifically, most Christians are aware of the adverse eventualities associated with divorce and can identify its significance due to the Church’s cases. [How is this related to the dissertation or justify the need for the project?]

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Lexical Analysis [This whole section is completely unnecessary because it does not tie to any preposition or why this project is needed. Besides it is poorly written, and I already have already written more on this that I could have easily copied but this is a dissertation and biblical rationale chapter]
In Matthew 19:1-12, Jesus engaged in a dialogue with the Pharisees after he entered Judea, a Gentile region.6 Akin to his travel in other regions, Jesus’ opponents approached him with a question aimed at trapping him into uttering words that would anger Herod or contradict Moses’ teachings. In verse three, the Pharisees posed a question to Jesus, ‘Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife on any grounds?’7 Entrenched in cultural, legal, and biblical grounds, Jesus understood their intentions and opted to reframe it based on marriage’s biblical foundation. [Poor writing] In verse four, he responded, ‘Haven’t you read…,’ implying that his listeners would better understand what he was about to say. [Wrong syntax analysis] Paradoxically, Jesus referenced the Torah from which the Pharisees drew their understanding of divorce law. [Not true Jesus referred to Genesis 1:26-27 and 2:24-25 and there is nothing about divorce in those texts. I doubt the theological skills being applied here, wow!] In his initial response, he urged [Really, Jesus urged them to ask a question?] the Pharisees to pose a second question, which he knew would trap him into saying something blasphemous.[What does this mean?] In verse 7, the Pharisees asked Jesus, ‘Why then did Moses command us to give divorce papers and send her away?’ in this question, and the Pharisees sought to provoke Jesus into the claim that Moses’ teachings were wrong. However, Jesus responded that the real reason Moses condoned divorce entailed ‘the hardness of their hearts’ mentioned in verse 8. Genesis 1: 9, Jesus taught about divorce, alongside the exception clause, which perplexed his disciples more than the Pharisees. In disgust, the disciples asked Jesus, ‘If the relationship of a man with his wife is as such, it’s better not to marry.’
Similarly, Paul’s teaching in 1 Corinthians 7 portrays marriage from the perspective of the cross. More precisely, Paul’s interactions with the Corinthians fostered the teaching that marriage can distract spouses from the cross, and for single people, there are situations not to pursue it. Paul’s sentiment, ‘It is good for a man not to have sexual relations with a woman,’ does not allude to his opposition to sex. God created the life-long union between man and woman, implying that he endorses sexual relations. Besides, Paul held high regard for marriage and sex. However, in a letter to the Corinthians, Paul sought to teach them to abide by their wives and the holy institution of marriage. Specifically, in the phrase, διὰ δὲ τὰς πορνείας ἕκαστος τὴν ἑαυτοῦ γυναῖκα ἐχέτω καὶ ἑκάστη τὸν ἴδιον ἄνδρα ἐχέτω, [What is this doing here? When I ask for skills in Biblical Greek as a requirement, it does not mean peppering the paper with a Greek sentences to prove a point. Where are the commentaries saying and what are the specifics of the tect impacting the subject of the research. For example 1 Cor 7:15 talks about ἄπιστος or unbeliever who might dissert and in “such cases” ἐν τοῖς τοιούτοιςwhat are the interpretation of such in relation to divorce, should in such cases include abuse as theologians like Wayne Grudem are advancing] can be translated to mean that ‘due to fornication after fornication, each on (of you husbands) should continue (in the sexual relationship) with (your) one wife, and each one (of you wives) should continue (in the sexual relationship) with your husband.’10 In this statement, Paul used the plural, πορνείας, to highlight the infamous sexual sins in Corinth. Most fundamentally, Paul recognized that fornication was running rampant in Corinth, but merely uttering words would not curb the sin.
In 1 Corinthians 7:2, Paul stated that an individual should have his spouse sexually and each wife should have her husband. Based on these words, Paul attempted to help the Corinthians develop a full appreciation for the physical marriage-bond put in place by their creator. Conversely, in verses 10 and 11, Paul addressed Christian couples who may have been considering divorce or separation. In Corinth, the divorce context was not considered Rabbinic Judaism since it was in Jesus’ day. Instead, across the Greek and Roman cities, the divorce law was interpreted to be that if an individual’s partner decided to divorce their spouse, they could do so by leaving. Similarly, divorce was interpreted as, if the individual owned the house, he or she should insist that the partner leaves. During this time, Paul’s teachings indicated that divorce ought to have been handled through separation based on no-fault or contest. However, no regulations or provisions existed protecting women as the requirement Judaism. If the couple proceeded to divorce in court, it was meant to determine how the property would be distributed instead of determining if they should break off their marriage. Akin to today’s society, when the couple divorced, society the partners as free individuals who would remmary.12
Instructions for Divorce among Christians
Following verses 10 and 11, Paul attempted to teach believers on whether they should divorce. For instance, he stated that God prohibited divorce or separation after marriage, or in the event of separation, another marriage. Similar sentiments are echoed in Malachi 2: 14-16, which states that although God hated divorce and initially created marriage for men and women, a provision or exception exists in Pentateuch’s divorce, especially across issues that involve uncleanness, which has been translated to imply adultery. In Jesus’ era, this provision has been interpreted by Rabbi Hillel’s followers as condoning divorce for any reason that did not please the husband. When confronted by the Pharisees about this issue, Jesus did not condone the widespread interpretation that accommodated divorce for any reason and further limited it to sexual immorality, porneia, meaning adultery in Matthew 5: 32; 19: 6-9.
In 1 Corinthians 7: 10-11, Paul interpreted Jesus’ words to the Christian believers who were married. For instance, Paul stated that ‘10To the married, I give this command (not I, but the Lord: A wife must not separate (chōrizō) from her husband. 11But if she does, she must remain unmarried or else be reconciled to her husband. And a husband must not divorce his wife).’ Under the NIV version, divorce is translated to aphiēmi, which implies releasing or dismissing someone from a particular place or situation. In the Greco-Roman context, Paul is portrayed to be referring to couples in which both partners are Christians, similar to the way Jesus addressed couples within the Jewish context.
Subsequently, Paul affirmed that the marriage binds the couple until death, echoed in Matthew 19: 4-6. Precisely, Paul stated that ‘Haven’t you read… that at the beginning the Creator made them male and female,’ and ‘For this reason, a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one flesh? So, they are no longer two, but one. Therefore, what God has joined together, let no man separate.’ [The guide says don’t insert full passages into the text] In today’s society, divorce is associated with intense pain, distress, and psychological issues, even among Christians left to ponder over several issues, [Poor sentence structure] including whether they can remarry. [You mean Gravningen et al said this, which page?] For instance, when a spouse migrates to an international destination such as the United States, why is it challenging to maintain the marriage, or why does the couple drift away from the bond that initially brought them together. As Arugu puts it, the major contributor to the increase in rates of divorce in the twentieth century entails the widespread acceptance in society. More precisely, the increase in society’s tolerance of divorce has emanated from the relaxation of negative attitudes in Church. Besides, divorce is no longer perceived as sin by most religious denominations, and most nations, including Ghana, have adopted relatively moderate divorce laws.
Additional attributions to the increase in divorce rates in today’s society include less satisfaction among couples with their marriages than biblical times or a few decades ago. Similarly, the variation in cultural norms, social constructs, and realities between the two contexts, Ghana and North America, trigger different relationship experiences and determine the standard predictors of marriage outcomes. On the one hand, Ghana’s cultural and religious systems help its people in formulating internalized social constructs and norms that serve as the primary sources behavior patterns in a relationship. At the same time, marriage ceases to be a fundamental element in the society and transitions into a social construct. Although several studies exist on marriage and religion, they have been limited to the basic aspects of religiosity, including church attendance and affiliations. However, some researchers have extended their studies to proximal aspects of religion, fostering a better understanding of how married couples connect their religious faith to family life. This objective’s attainment has included aspects such as specific belief systems, the processes applied in meaning-making, and the impacts of religion on such meaning-making, alongside religious behaviors that extend beyond church attendance.
Despite the approaches used in determining religion’s role in curbing divorce rates, especially among couples who migrated to international destinations, [Migration is not just about people who migrated already married, check the project worksheet and the proposal outline to understand the research] the biblical interpretation of marriage, remarriage, and divorce follows the commands postulated across various scriptures. For instance, in 1 Corinthians 7: 10-11, Paul passed on commands from Jesus to shape marriages and deter divorce rates. Among these commands include that Christians should not get divorced or separated from their spouses. However, if divorce or separation are inevitable, the believers should remain divorced, single, or work towards reconciling their marriage. [Orr and Walter, never said anything like this, what page?]
Stressors in Marital Distress or Instability among Ghanaian Immigrant couples in America
Despite the underlying pressure to abide by specific cultural norms and social constructions in African countries, Christian couples experience various stress factors that significantly contribute to the prevalence of divorce rates. These stressors’ experience is primarily experienced by Christian couples who immigrate to different parts of the world, including the United States, as they are constantly expected to maintain their African traditions and further assimilate into the host nation’s cultures. For women, immigrating to North America from Ghana necessitates acquiring a new language and culture, alongside social status and income levels. In the Ghanaian context, women may have been predisposed and limited to relying on the husband as the sole income earner. Still, upon immigration, they face stressors that include finding employment, discrimination, culture shock, and linguistic changes. These stress factors are coupled with cultural barriers to necessary health and social services, lack of professional accreditation, and the need to secure affordable and safe housing.

Divorce among Christians

Conversely, for some women who migrate with their husbands, the process may translate to economic independence, social mobility, and relative autonomy. These elements occur when immigration is accompanied by a significant increase in participation in the labor market. The exposure to increased responsibilities in the economy and throughout society tends to alter the power distribution processes within the family, culminating in increased participation and authority over household decision-making and control over resources. At the same time, increased participation in the labor force intensifies the burden carried by Ghanaian women until they identify different ways of handling the conventional roles and responsibilities, including those of childcare and housework. These occurrences bring about a dramatic change in the power relationship within the marriage. Despite situations in which immigrating may improve the women’s social status, it does not change their roles and position within the family. [THIS WHOLE SECTION IS NOT NEEDED, I NEED BIBLICAL RATIONALE]

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Relevance of the Stressors to the Exception Clause in Matthew 19:9 and 5:32
Following the stress factors faced by women in Christian marriages and who migrate with their husbands from Ghana to the United States, several allusions can be deduced in terms of their relevance to interpreting the exemption clause passed by Jesus. Specifically, in Matthew 5:23; 19:9, Jesus provided an exception that warranted divorce and remarriage if the reason for separation was adultery or sexual immorality. Among Christians, this exception indicates that unless the husband or wife commits adultery, the couple should abide by Paul’s command and in reference to Jesus’ teachings. It further indicates a consensus among Christians applied since its introduction by Erasmus in the sixteenth century. Nonetheless, the interpretation of this exception has, over time, changed to favor specific circumstances in which a couple seeks to separate.
As pointed out by Ferrante, the variations and challenges in interpreting the exception clause are based on the phrase ‘porneia.’ Different people hold distinct views regarding the phrase’s interpretation, with the least adoption option referring to an incestuous relationship. Nevertheless, the most likely held view is in reference to biblical chapters, such as Acts 15:20 and 29, which has interpreted the phrase porneia as forbidden marriages, as per Lev 18:6-18. Similarly, another set of interpretations of the phrase entails a forbidden or prohibited relationship between a Jew and a gentile through mixed marriage. These two interpretations are characterized by the Jewish context of Matthew’s Gospel, which may not be considered legitimate marriages that should be dissolved instead of involving the divorce process. The interpretation that best fits today’s Christian world and marriages entail the view of porneia as unchastity of betrothed men and women. Under this view, the interpretation of the phrase as sexual immorality without reference to marital unfaithfulness is based on its use in describing a situation in which the betrothed and not married yet.
As described herein, the various stressors facing Ghanaian women in Christian marriages and who have migrated to North America predisposes them to conditions that disregard and change gender roles and marital quality. Although the women or men in these marriages do not necessarily commit adultery, they engage in activities that lead to sexual immorality without reference to marital unfaithfulness. These circumstances further lead to divorce. The couple is forced to compromise by accepting the changes in gender roles and marital quality instead of adhering to the cultural norms, social constructions, and Christian values that initially bound them together. In Matthew 1:19, when Mary and Joseph were betrothed, she conceived Jesus. The verse further points out that ‘her husband Joseph, being a just man and unwilling to put her to shame, resolved to divorce her quietly.’ In this case, Mary and Joseph are considered betrothed, mnesteuo, but Joseph is still considered her husband, aner.
The lexical correlation between these interpretations and those in today’s society exemplifies the significance of betrothal in Jesus’ era compared to engagement in the contemporary world. In the latter era, being betrothed meant the same as marriage as the couple had their intentions to get married or further made the necessary arrangements. The only difference between betrothal and marriage entailed abstinence from sexual intercourse until the coupled is united. Marcus. For instance, when Joseph decided to divorce apolysai, Mary quietly portrayed the end of a betrothal based on perceived porneia, committing adultery. The incident coincides with divorce in an entire marriage, which was considered a just act as it was at par with Jewish customs and the standards put in place by Jesus. Christian couples who have migrated to North America get divorced for reasons that do not include porneia, sexual immorality. Although the circumstances slightly differ, they have significantly contributed to the increase in divorce rates today. Besides, the Church does not reinforce marriage fundamentals before and after a couple enters the holy institution. [Apart from the quality of writing, what has all this got to do with the research at hand?]
Based on these factors, divorces among Ghanaian couples who have migrated to North America follow the interpretation in Joseph’s and Mary’s case. The circumstances leading to separation fall under the category of adultery. For instance, stressors such as lack of marital satisfaction, intimate partner violence, and different forms of distress play a fundamental role in the destabilization of marriage, leading to divorce. Before migrating, the couple understood and abided by the traditional and cultural norms that defined their family roles. Extended family members had a significant influence on the activities carried out in the family, while social constructs defined gender roles and participation in societal events. However, over time, these trends have drastically changed as people have become increasingly individualistic and further taken the laws into their hands. As a result, family values have significantly eroded, resulting in an increase in divorce in contemporary society.
Traditionally, both husbands and wives understood marriage as an indissoluble, sacred, and stable institution based on biblical teachings related to ‘what God puts together, no one should separate or put asunder,’ Matthew 19:6. [This is completely unnecessary statement, what does it proof?] Akin to the biblical allusions,[allusions overused term] marriage in Ghana and other African countries meant that no couples had the privilege [divorce is not a privilege] of discontinuing or dissolving the Christian relationship. For instance, after the marital exchange of vows, couples promised each other to remain in the marriage until death separated them. Upon migration in today’s society, numerous things have changed, and marriage is no longer a stable and steady institution. [This is below master’s level writing let alone PhD, please is anyone checking?] When in a new country with different cultures, social constructs, values, and rules, privileges, and opportunities, among others, a Christian couple is often faced with various issues that might dissolve their relationship. The cross-culturalization between these distinct nations influences the attitudes of the couple concerning marriage and divorce. For instance, the woman may want freedom from the traditional roles of childcare and looking after the family. At the same time, the man may desire to explore different cultures or pursue a different path.

Divorce among Christians

Conclusion
After conducting an in-depth exegetical analysis of the applicable scriptures, this project has further analyzed existing literature to acquire the relevant data related to the effects of migration on Ghanaian Christian couples’ marital quality and stability in North America. By harnessing Bbiblical teachings and principles applied in different contexts, the study has generated immense insights that may strengthen marriage and minimize divorce rates. Besides, the congruency between the biblical allusions and the scientific studies has played a fundamental role in questions such as how migrations affect the quality and stability of sub-Saharan African Christian couples in North America. Although the biblical allusions do not provide facts about the appropriate steps that should be taken [About what?], they provide relevance to Jesus’ teachings, among other scriptures that conform to God’s intention for humans. [Are you separating the Bible from Jesus?] More precisely, the biblical teachings indicated that marriage is an institution crucial to human existence and further serves as a crucial avenue for people to partake in God’s creative activities through creation. As per God’s command, for humans to be fruitful, multiply, and fill the earth, marriage serves as the fulfillment and a precursor to a family’s formation. Given this, all cultures recognize its importance despite relativism.
Among Christians, marriage is expected to be a life contract bidding the parties involved commitment till death separates them.[Bad grammar] This implies that divorce or separation is not an acceptable option regardless of the circumstances.[Is that true, but you mentioned Jesus provided an exception?] However, the divorce and separation rates reported in today’s society have become a concern, even for Christians, as marriages are crashing over irreconcilable differences.[Bad writing] The social and ethical effects of divorce have thus become apparent. At the same time, solutions are undeniably elusive, and regardless of the various measures applied by the Church, marriage counselors, and other concerned individuals or groups to minimize its recurrence. Therefore, based on this section’s findings, different theoretical and analytical methods should be applied in determining the precise variables and measures that would foster answering the project questions.

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Asoodeh, Mohammad H., Shiva Khalili, Manijeh Daneshpour, and Masoud G. Lavasani. “Factors of a successful marriage: Accounts from self-described happy couples.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 5 (2010), 2042-2046. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.410.

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Brako, Fred. “Examining gender role beliefs and marital satisfaction of Ghanaian immigrant couples in the U.S.A.” Drexel University- Ph.D., Couple and Family Therapy, November 2012. https://idea.library.drexel.edu/islandora/object/idea%3A6126.

Caarls, Kim, and Valentina Mazzucato. “Does International Migration Lead to Divorce? Ghanaian Couples in Ghana and Abroad.” Population 70, no. 1 (2015), 127-151. doi:10.3917/popu.1501.0135.

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