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Resource Curse in Nigeria Essay Paper

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Resource Curse in Nigeria

Majority of the African countries make poor use of their natural resources. Instead of the resources enhancing economic growth, they often lead to corruption, reduced economic growth, caused civil wars and degraded the physical environment. Like most of the African countries, corruption is endemic in Nigeria, an oil producing country in West Africa. Instead of investing resource revenues in education and infrastructure, crooked and corrupt politicians collude with mining companies, siphons the proceeds from the oil and other minerals into their own pockets (Sucheta 2013).

The purpose of this paper is to critically analyze the extent of the Resource Curse in Nigeria and ails from ‘dutch disease’ epidemic that has resulted from impoverished governance and lack of transparency, hence dragging its economic growth.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

Countries rich in minerals and gas should use them to provide an essential source of funding for development purposes. However, it seems exploitation of such natural resources is linked to inequality, poverty, poor public services, and slow economic growth. The paradox is what is referred to as the resource curse. In developing countries, however, the resource curse epidemic is mostly in existence due to impoverished governance that lacks transparency (Rhett 2013).

There exists strong evidence to show that countries rich in natural resources have lost profitable opportunities by agreeing to harmful contracts. There is also strong evidence to show that resource-rich governments lack the will and capacity to manage revenues collected from extraction industries in an efficient way that meets social objectives and enhances development in a sustainable way.

Moreover, adding to the difficulties faced by governments in developing countries in the management of volatile revenue, the countries are mostly vulnerable to problems such as corruption, lack of transparency, civil conflicts, and accountability problems (Sucheta 2013). These problems have hindered domestic development and instead of the resources being used for the benefit of the citizens, they have caused a ‘curse’.

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Resource curse in Nigeria

1. Social and community impact

Nigeria ails from a phenomenon sickness referred to as ‘Dutch disease’ by a popular economist. The economist used the term to describe the effect of the North Sea gas bonanza on Netherlands economy. Analysts that have been studying the trends in resource-rich countries have used the term dutch disease to represent the negative pattern in development. The local communities are unable to compete with other countries due to inflow of foreign currency making the local currency to bloat (John 2013).

Rather than the natural resources lead to economic development in Netherlands, the minerals caused a foreign exchange inflow that resulted in the rising of the country’s currency value. If currency becomes overvalued, domestic industries in manufacturing, agriculture, and other exports end up becoming less competitive. Though the illness afflicts both the well governed and impoverished economies, the latter has few ways of dealing with the consequences (Paul 2011).

Countries with poor governance that lacks transparency are prone to war especially if the country is endowed with abundant natural resources. Nigeria has continuously been fighting civil wars and is one of the most corrupt nations in the world as ranked by World Bank’s control of corruption Index. In Nigeria, oil rents an amount equivalent to 30% of the GDP and the country has been in conflicts (Oby 2015).

Dependence on natural resource insulates leaders from public accountability and pressure. Though Nigeria has abundant natural resources, it is short of paramount checks on government control including a democratic culture. In past years, violent war has plagued Nigeria making oil a curse instead of a blessing to the majority of citizens.

A mixture of transparency issues and poor impoverished governance is lethal in Nigeria. Sub-Saharan Africa resource rents are by a margin higher than other countries in the world according to the World Bank measure of GDP. Rent is defined as the difference between production value at global prices and the sum of the cost of oil production, minerals, natural gas, forests, and coal. Nigeria has one of the highest resource rents as a measure of GDP but has one of the lowest controls of corruption scores among developing nations (Oby 2015).

However, natural resources do not automatically cause poor economic outcomes or become a natural epidemic curse. For example, North America has a higher oil production capacity compared to Nigeria and Africa in general, yet it has a low resource rate as a percentage of GDP and it has a good governance structure (Tasihu 2015).

Still, Canada, one of the top oil producing countries has the least corrupt government worldly. Norway is considered as a perennial global leader yet it is one of the highest exporters of crude oil. As witnessed in the three countries, North America, Canada and Norway, the resource curse can be avoided if the governance structure is transparent and is in control of corruption.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Nigeria could be prosperous if only it exercised good governance, transparent mining deals, had stronger disclosure and had control of corruption. Good governance means having economic policies that encouraged diversified economies and discouraged over-dependence on natural resource rents. Another resource curse emerges from transnational companies that coerce with politicians to meander the country’s natural resources for their personal gains.

The country has made little progress in enhancing transparency. Though the country has joined EITI, its people still view their leaders as corrupt (Tasihu 2015). The leaders have not taken a step from lack of transparency to actual accountability that requires a nation with the training and skills needed for overall effectiveness and monitoring.

Skills required for effective monitoring of transparency require funding that the government of Nigeria is not able to provide. The private sector, multilateral banks, and bilateral donors offer the financial support needed for programs that educate citizens in accounting and tracking of revenue expenditure. The citizens of the country require the technical and analytical skills to be able to track government expenses.

However, if the citizens do not have the necessary skills, they are not in a position to hold public officials accountable for the wrongful spending of public resources and revenue. The reason the citizens do not have the skills is because the governance structure of Nigeria does not provide room and opportunity for the citizens to get educated. Instead of concentrating on average citizens, the public officials concentrate on how they can rip from the public natural resources before their term in office ends (Oby 2015).

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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It’s not surprising that the dominant factors leading to Nigeria’s civil war are economic. The factors that contribute mainly for the risk of war are levels of income, the rate of economic growth, and governing structure. Still, if a country is poor, is economically declining and hugely depends on natural resources for export, it surely faces a risk of experiencing civil war. Although the world and media focus on political personalities and the events triggering the war, the fact is that civil war is mostly experienced in countries that have low levels of income, are declining economically and highly depend on natural resources.

In Nigeria, there is a big financial gap between the rich and the poor. The rich entice the poor to engage in war while they are using their status and finances to get profits from the country’s resources (Oby 2015). Natural resources end up springing evil instead of creating prosperity for the citizens.

The detachment of Nigeria’s government creates a route through which natural resources rent increase. Since the government is resource-rich, it does not need other revenue source, and, therefore, it becomes detached from its citizens. In the majority of the countries that pay high tax, they scrutinize their governments on how it spends its revenue. In fact, the tax payment is the reason that most countries in the West became democratic. It can, therefore, be seen that if there is no tax, representation of the people does not take place but if the electorates pay taxes, they will be represented.

As a resource-rich nation, the rents are not considered to belong to the citizens the same way income is taken from them in the form of taxes hence creating the detachment. The government ignores the needs of the people since it gets revenue from rents. The result is an underdeveloped economy with the majority being poor (Kammers 2015).

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Natural resources are mostly found in one part of the country, in the peripheral region. Due to poor governance, the politicians know that the people in this region are a ready prey for secessionist political movements. The politicians those people with money and empty promises telling them that resources should not be used in other regions and that other politicians are squandering the rents instead of the region benefitting from the proceeds.

Instead of the people focusing on development and using the resources to create diversity in other investments, they get corrupted in their minds and cease to do constructive businesses (Kammers 2015). The negative energy and statements usually result in civil wars and the same politicians that were inciting the people to end up benefiting from their resources.

Poor governance and lack of transparency create tension among political rivals and the citizens. When the ruling government has no control over the opposition and the corrupt government officials, it creates room for the existence of rebel groups and organizations. In Nigeria, Boko Haram is one of the rebel groups that is said to be politically involved.

Politicians fight amongst themselves through the rebel groups. The natural resources increase the motivation for the rebel groups as they facilitate them financially especially when some politicians are involved. The politicians use the natural resources to facilitate the rebels to gain power or fight the existing government. When the rebels increase in power and the government structure is weak, the ordinary citizens end up suffering. Instead of the people enjoying the resources, they are mostly scared and end up running away to protect themselves. When the natural resources facilitate rebellion in a country, the resources become a curse instead of a solution.

Revenue collected from natural resources should be used for harnessing economic growth as in the case of Botswana. Though a landlocked country, Botswana used the income generated from the diamond to expand its economic capacity. In the case of Nigeria, the revenue collected from the sale of oil causes conflicts and social strife. It still doesn’t have to be the case especially since the country is democratic.

If the leading government were more organized and keen to develop the country uniformly, the revenue would be useful. However, the greedy politicians do not disclose all the revenue collected to avoid being scrutinized by its citizens and the world. There is no free of information between the government and the public, and it has become survival of the fittest.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Often, African nations coerce with Western organizations to reach deals that mutually benefit them at the expense of the nation. There is no transparency in tendering of contracts. Since Western organizations are more powerful and have the ability to pay more, African leaders allow to be influenced and give them contracts without thinking of the local industries predicament (Elena and Jesper 2011).

The locals become the casual laborers for the Western organizations in the mining of their country’s resources. The organizations are highly paid by the government since the leaders know they have extra benefits from the payments. The local industries are demoralized, and some end up closing since they are unable to compete with the Western organizations.

Even though some of the domestic industries have the capability of giving the same services as the Western organizations, they are not given the same opportunity even if they submit their tenders. The locals end up being enslaved in their territories and doing manual jobs in their land while the Western organizations and the corrupt government officials reap high income.

Nigeria is an ethnically diverse society. Though people lobby the government, the lobbying is not necessarily for the welfare of the whole nation but individual and group interests. The government is ethnically divided leading to poor delivery of services to the public. On the other hand, electorates only elect someone because they belong to the same ethnic group. Instead integrating the nation, the ethnic tribes have divided the nation (Oby 2015).

People become self-centered even in the use of the natural resources. Those in power exploit the resources to fight other tribes. Since there are different resources in the different regions of the country, instead of the government ensuring there is an equitable distribution of the resources; it uses the resources to fight its ethnic rivals.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Just because a certain region supported a certain politician who is not a part of the leading government should not make a difference in how different regions are served by the government. The government should serve all people equally irrespective of their ethnic backgrounds. Instead, African governments choose to favor the regions that are richly endowed with natural resources to create room for embezzlement (Vanessa 2013). If the government were strong, ethnic differences and regional difference in term of natural resources should be used to create opportunities but not enmity among the people.

There is no transparency throughout the extractive supply chain. The government has put no measure in place to promote transparency from the negotiation of contracts to the allocation of budgets through the public budget. Civil society movements are not in place due to fear of intimidation by the government while some activists get lured with huge sums of money and stop the activism.

Active involvement of civil societies is important in the tracking of the origin and use of revenue generated from the extractive process (Vanessa 2013). Having public institutions that civil society participation is paramount for they assist in efficient control, monitoring and implementation of the policies. However, the government does not support the movements, and if they are formed, it is quick to label them as political assassins and demoralize them.

Mining of oil in Nigeria has displaced thousands of people. The government gives license to extractive industries without first considering the welfare of the community. Irresponsible extraction of oil and other minerals has resulted in epidemics, displacement, and hunger for affected communities. In the case of Boko Haram, it is the dire urge to control the resources that provoked the existing conflicts between the communities in Northern Nigeria. The licensed corporations force the communities to leave their land without prior notice or consultation (Paul 2014).

The community inhabiting the region endowed with the natural resource should be the main beneficiaries of it. Poor governance resulting from corruption forces the community to seek other means of survival instead of using the resources to upgrade their well-being for large corporations and political gains.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Poor people in the rural areas are not essentially equipped with skills to stand up to such extractive projects or fight for their rights (Sucheta 2013). Still, such communities highly depend on the natural resources for their survival and maintenance of their traditions and livelihood. Unfortunately, the communities live in remote regions and lack enough education.

The communities also have a poor justice system that acts as an inhibitor to getting to decision makers, comprehend decision-making process, and come up with appropriate measures to claim their rights. If riots do not happen, the communities leave their land injured and poorer.

Mining industries are not poor and usually employ few unskilled personnel. Most of the skilled labor is imported from abroad. The need for heavy technological machines and expertise skills require the companies to seek for Western labor since most of the locals have skill and expertise limitation. The government is not keen on education quality making most of its citizen’s lack the necessary skills needed for the resource industry (Godswill 2013).

The public schools lack enough equipment to teach adequately the theoretical and practical skills needed for the market. Thought the government is aware of the predicament, it hasn’t put any measure to reduce the problem. As a result, most of Nigeria’s graduates are under-employed or unemployed whereas in developed countries the natural resources tend to help the citizens as seen in North America.

2. Environmental impact

Adverse consequences of extractive industries are many and different. Excessive use of oil as fuel is one of the major reason for the climate change and environmental pollution. From a micro perspective, natural oil pollutes water resources and rivers. Offshore activities also affect the biodiversity of the ocean floor. Clearing of land for oil and mineral extraction triggers land erosion.

Acidic residues from mines are hard to drain hence affecting the quality of land. The government should have measures in place to control oil extraction in Nigeria. However, dependence on oil for revenue limits the government control over extractive industries resulting in pollution-related problems to the community (Terra and Joshua 2012).

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Conclusion

Natural Resource Governing Institute has been in the forefront trying to make sure that there is stability in the resource’s market. The institute set up measures to control global prices and revenues generated from developing nations such as Nigeria. It has been strategic in integrating the different stakeholders involved in extraction of natural resources.

With PYWP being in the mix too, the two bodies unite countries to make extraction of natural resources transparent and help people in the resource-rich nations. The fight for accountability amongst sub-Saharan nations hasn’t been easy but the give hope to the enslaved communities.

If a government is co-opted by partisan interests, it increases opportunities for favoring specific groups in the community through a budget allocation in exchange for political power. Also, if citizens are used to the fact that wealth results from neither productive efforts nor work but from having contacts within the government, they will have less motivation to train themselves on their rights.

The great focus of political and economic power means there are fewer incentives to invest in other industrial sectors. In the end, it leads to high levels of poverty, inequality, low democracy, political instability, civil wars, all of which undermine economic growth (Bryan 2015). Nigeria heavily depends on natural resources for revenue collection and does not put a lot of effort investing in other sectors.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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Poor governance results from the structures put in place by the ruling regime. As a developing country that is richly endowed with resources, Nigeria has experienced a resource curse instead of a growth opportunity. The government lack of transparency has promoted corruption in the extractive industries (Bryan 2015).

Ordinary citizens have instead been forced to leave their ancestral homes to give room for resource extraction since they do not have the right will and skills required to fight for their rights. High dependence on extractive industries has resulted in civil wars and conflicts that are promoted by the politicians. The minerals provide high rent that is supposedly left for the rich and politicians.

It can be noted that existing government regime concentrates on empowering their political careers through the use of the natural resources rather than serving the electorates. Ethnic differences and difference in political aspirations are used to create civil wars so that the government can get room to lure Western organization to exploit the minerals in return for high revenue (Daniel 2015).

The poor citizens do not have adequate representation in the government since each region is treated differently. The natural resources that are supposedly meant to enrich and improve the living standards of the people as seen in North America and Canada have instead facilitated corruption resulting in poor economic growth and poverty in developing countries.

Resource Curse in Nigeria

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References

Bryan Christy (2015). Natural resources and conflict. Retrieved from http://africacenter.org/security/topic/natural-resources/

Daniel Aguet (2015). Causes of poverty in Africa. Retrieved from http://www.liliireducationproject.org/2015/04/30/april-2015-causes-of-poverty-in-africa-aguet/

Godswill Akpabio (2013). How corruption, poor governance are killing Nigeria. Retrieved from http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/134999-how-corruption-poor-governance-are-killing-nigeria-by-godswill-akpabio.html

Elena Paltseva and Jesper Roine (2011). Are natural resources good or bad for development? Retrieved from http://freepolicybriefs.org/2011/11/21/are-natural-resources-good-or-bad-for-development/

Kammers Gaard (2015). Oil causes many environmental problems in Nigeria. Retrieved from http://www.folkecenter.net/gb/news/world/oil-causes-problems-in-Nigeria/

Louis Marie (2010). Natural resources and economic development in transition economies. Retrieved from http://cerdi.org/uploads/sfCmsContent/html/323/Philippot.pdf

Oby Ezekwesili (2015). Bad governance, behind poverty in Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.naij.com/50387.html

Paul Collier (2011). Natural resources and conflict in Africa. Retrieved from http://the-beacon.info/countries/africa/natural-resources-and-conflict-in-africa/

Rhett Butler (2014). Environmental issues in Nigeria. Retrieved from http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20nigeria.htm

Sucheta Pradhan (2013). How do natural resources affect economic development? Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/how-do-natural-resources-affect-economic-development.html

Steward Patrick (2012). Why natural resources are a curse in developing countries and how to fix it. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/04/why-natural-resources-are-a-curse-on-developing-countries-and-how-to-fix-it/256508/

Tasihu Halidu (2015). Nigeria environmental issues. Retrieved from http://ngenvirons.blogspot.co.ke/

Terra Lawson and Joshua Greenstein (2012). Beating the resource curse in Africa: A global effort. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/africa-sub-saharan/beating-resource-curse-africa-global-effort/p28780

Vanessa Ushie (2013). Political decentralization and natural resource governance in Nigeria. Retrieved from http://www.nsi-ins.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/2013-Political-Decentralization-and-Natural-Resource-Governance-in-Nigeria.pdf

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Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

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Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Sexual abuse among the minors is generally described as any sexual act between a minor and an adult or between two minors, where one partner exerts power over the other person; coercing the other partner to engage in sexual act. It also includes non –contact sexual activity such as exposing the minors to pornography, voyeurism, sexual communication via social media and exhibitionism (Barnett, Heinze, and Arble, 2013).

This is often a traumatic experience for any person; but it is a criminal offense. Sexual abuse incidences among the adolescents in the USA are high. It is estimated that every 10children, one is sexually abused before she or he attains their 18^th birthday. Girls are more prone to sexual boys as compared to boys; one in every seven girl is sexually assaulted as compared to one in every boy (Reid, 2014).

Literature indicates that sexual abuse increases the chances of teen pregnancy, often unwanted pregnancy- which is associated with low birth outcomes. The coping strategies used by these adolescents include running away and substance abuse- putting the teenager in more risky activities (Marriott, Hamilton-Giachritsis, and Harrop, 2013). The statistics continues to rise and more of our children will be sexually assaulted if no intervention is put in place.

The proposed research question is ‘what are the risk factors of sexual abuse among the African American adolescents? Understanding the risk factors will help understand the teenagers, understand the behavioural and psychological challenges they deal with, and strategies to help them cope with these traumatic events (Hunt, Martens, and Belcher, 2011).

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Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Annotated bibliography

Barnett, D., Heinze, H. and Arble, E. (2013). Risk, Resilience, and the Rorschach: A Longitudinal Study of Children Who Experienced Sexual Abuse. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95(6), pp.600-609.

The study evaluates the experiences sexual abused children, indicating that these minors are likely to develop emotion and behavioral challenges. The paper is a longitudinal study of 44 children who had undergone sexual abuse. Using Rorschach Inkblot Test, approximately three quarters of the participants reported depressive symptoms. The study evaluates the effective tools that can be used to evaluate the extent of trauma among the children and adolescents who have been sexually abused.

For instance, using Rorschach protocol, there are other ways that can be used to by the healthcare providers and school counsellors to understand the child’s processing styles including the negative thoughts associated with maltreatment and sexual assaults.

Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Elwood, L., Smith, D., Resnick, H., Gudmundsdottir, B., Amstadter, A., Hanson, R., Saunders, B. and Kilpatrick, D. (2011). Predictors of rape: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(2), pp.166-173.

The article highlights that socioeconomic factors are the main factor that determine risk for adolescent’s sexual abuse. The internet sex crimes against minors are few but a significant percentage of the entire issue. The study highlights that there is no child who is immune, but the social cultural background determines the risk level of sexual abuse.

Family structure is one of the risk factors, with research indicating foster families children with the highest risks, gender, age, ethnicity and socioeconomic status. This very important when evaluating the ways to minimize risk factors associated with African American minor sexual abuse.

Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Francisco, M., Hicks, K., Powell, J., Styles, K., Tabor, J. and Hulton, L. (2008). The Effect of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Adolescent Pregnancy: An Integrative Research Review. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 13(4), pp.237-248.

This article adds immense knowledge to my proposed study as it describes the current literature on adolescent’s sexual abuse, teen pregnancies and the potential of risk factors that are cross cutting. The study identifies the cross cutting risk factors such as substance abuse, mother disengagement, family constellation, and parent-adolescent conflict. The study highlights the importance of identifying the victimized adults early is vital to ensure that there is early intervention.

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Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

George, A., Abatemarco, D., Terry, M., Yonas, M., Butler, J. and Akers, A. (2013). A qualitative exploration of the role of social networks in educating urban African American adolescents about sex. Ethnicity & Health, 18(2), pp.168-189.

The article explores the role of social networks in sexual health issues among the African American adolescents. The article identifies the social media to have major roles including guide, challenger, confidant, shelter, role model, and supervisor –chaperone and the main source of sexual health information. This is one of the platforms that could be used to reach millions of youth’s sexual assaults among African American community.

Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Hunt, K., Martens, P. and Belcher, H. (2011). Risky business: Trauma exposure and rate of posttraumatic stress disorder in African American children and adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(3), pp.365-369.

This article highlights the consequences associated with sexual abuse among the African American adolescents. The study indicates that domestic violence and sexual abuse is correlated to childhood posttraumatic stress disorder (PDTSD). The study indicates that exposure to such type of violence increases the likely hood of post traumatic disorders by two fold among the African American adolescents. Other consequences highlighted by the study includes social isolation, low self-esteem and low self-confidence.

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Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Marriott, C., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. and Harrop, C. (2013). Factors Promoting Resilience Following Childhood Sexual Abuse: A Structured, Narrative Review of the Literature. Child Abuse Rev., 23(1), pp.17-34.

The article is important as it adds great knowledge to my literature review on factors associated with resilience after adolescent sexual abuse. Examples of such factors include interpersonal features such as the adaptive coping strategies; but the most important factors highlighted by the article is familial stability, support from peers and schools- these creates a sense of community that understands and is willing to support the victims. The article proposes more research on the effectiveness of using the systematic interventions such as social programs and policies to improve the outcomes of sexual adults’ victims.

Payne, J., Galvan, F., Williams, J., Prusinski, M., Zhang, M., Wyatt, G. and Myers, H. (2014). Impact of childhood sexual abuse on the emotions and behaviors of adult men from three ethnic groups in the USA. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 16(3), pp.231-245.

This article describes the impact of childhood sexual abuse on lives of the adults from three ethnic groups. The study evaluates the psychological and behavioral struggles of survivors of childhood sexual assaults. This article is important for my study as it aids in understanding the behavioral challenges which includes shame issues, sexual identity crisis, hyper-vigilance, anger and low self-esteem.

The article highlights that there are cultural context influences, such that people from different community will respond differently; suggesting that effective coping strategies are those that are tailor made to match the victim’s sociocultural background.

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Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

Reid, J. (2014). Risk and resiliency factors influencing onset and adolescence-limited commercial sexual exploitation of disadvantaged girls. Crim Behav Ment Health, 24(5), pp.332-344.

The previous studies have focused mainly on age related variables when analyzing the young women involved in sexual assaults, especially among those involved in sexual exploitation commercially. The study evaluated the variables associated with adolescents of sexual exploitation with the aim of identifying the resiliency factors and potential risks involved. This is important in my proposal as it facilitates understanding the concept of sexual victimization of adolescents, the effects of substance use and sexual violence.

Trickett, P., Negriff, S., Ji, J. and Peckins, M. (2011). Child Maltreatment and Adolescent Development. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), pp.3-20.

This article explores the collective impact of child maltreatment in the USA. The study highlights that childhood maltreatment which is associated with a myriad of mental health issues as well as developmental issues. The study helps improve the literature review of the proposed study, as it helps understand the reasons the maltreated adolescents tend to be more vulnerable bad outcomes; a predictive of long lasting effects in intimate relationships. This helps when developing early specific intervention that targets establishing effective coping strategies.

Wang, Y., Storr, C., Browne, D. and Wagner, F. (2010). Early Sexual Experience and Later Onset of Illegal Drug Use Among African American Students on HBCU Campuses. Substance Use & Misuse, 46(4), pp.543-551.

The study examines if early sexual exposure and sexual abuse is associated with subsequent drug use among the African American adolescents. The study evaluates a sample of 7372 African American students; which indicated that sexual assault is modestly associated with subsequent initiation of illicit drug abuse, especially among the females. This is also correlated with risky behaviors activities such as multiple sexual partners. The article concludes that school based programs will help empower the victims with coping strategies, effective enough, thus reducing the incidences of illicit drug use and other associated risky behaviors.

Sexual abuse of adolescents and African American children

References

Payne, J., Galvan, F., Williams, J., Prusinski, M., Zhang, M., Wyatt, G. and Myers, H. (2014). Impact of childhood sexual abuse on the emotions and behaviours of adult men from three ethnic groups in the USA. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 16(3), pp.231-245.

Reid, J. (2014). Risk and resiliency factors influencing onset and adolescence-limited commercial sexual exploitation of disadvantaged girls. Crim Behav Ment Health, 24(5), pp.332-344.

Trickett, P., Negriff, S., Ji, J. and Peckins, M. (2011). Child Maltreatment and Adolescent Development. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), pp.3-20.

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Mining Existing Literature Reviews on Mental Health Services

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Mining Existing Literature Reviews

This paper entails mining existing literature reviews of three dissertations concerning transition of veterans from armed forces to civilian-force. The mining and evaluation process will involve pointing out the common themes, quoted authors, outline organization and its rationale. Finally, the findings are summarized and provided along with each dissertation’s literature review outline and a highlight of how it is connected to the proposed dissertation topic.

Serving those who served: Retention of newly returning veterans from Iraq and Afghanistan in mental health treatment

Table 1 and Table 2 below provide outline of the literature review and summary of quoted authors respectively. Furthermore, the analysis of this literature will follow.

Table 1

Outline for Literature Review

Definition of Mental Health Veterans with mental disorders Combat stressors Effects of OEF/OIF on mental health Evidence-Based Interventions Relevance to Veteran Affairs (VA) services to veterans with PTSDPTSD Diagnosis Mental Health/PTSD Interventions Retention and number of visits mental health services Favorable environmental intervention and support Teaching social emotional education to the veterans VA Chart and Psychotherapy protocols for monitoring Summary

Table 2

Authors

Broad Topics

Hoge Milliken Schell Marshall Ramchand Schnurr Frayne Cohen Seal Sayer Rosenheck

Rate of PTSD and related veteran mental health services The risk of PTSD in discharged and retired OEF/OIF Veterans The rate of PTSD soldiers as in active-duty soldiers Diagnosis of PTSD and utilization of both mental and non-mental services by veterans PTSD mental and non-mental health services interventions and monitoring Implementing sustainable interventions for the purpose of dealing with PTSD stressors.

Time to Treatment among Veterans of Conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan with Psychiatric Diagnoses

Table 3 and Table 4 below provide outline of the literature review and summary of quoted authors respectively. Furthermore, the analysis of this literature will follow.

Table 3

Outline for Literature Review

Definition of Psychiatric Diagnoses Veterans of Conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq Main cause of psychiatric diagnoses Effects of mental health treatment timing on OEF/OIF veterans after deployment Evidence-Based Interventions Chronic mental health problems Psychiatric DiagnosesPsychiatric Diagnoses Interventions Veteran Affairs (VA) health servicesEarly mental health treatment initiation Determinants of time to initial mental health visit (age, race or ethnic) VA services and timing of care for monitoring Summary

Table 4

Authors	Broad Topics
Seal Schell Wang Lane Olfson Litz Maguen O’Donnell Bryant Creamer	Rates of utilization of mental health and primary care services among OEF/ OIF/OND veterans The risk factors to psychiatric diagnoses among OEF/OIF Veterans Diagnosis of chronic mental conditions among OEF/OIF veterans Early mental health timing Prevention of psychiatric symptoms chronicity

A Hero’s Welcome? Exploring the Prevalence and Problems of Military Veterans in the Arrestee Population

Table 5 and Table 6 below provide outline of the literature review and summary of quoted authors respectively. Furthermore, the analysis of this literature will follow.

Mining Existing Literature Reviews

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Table 5

Outline for Literature Review

History on Returning Military Veterans Definition of mental disorders that affected veterans Combat veterans from Vietnam and 9/11 wars The Link between Military Service, Combat-related Problems and CriminalityVeteran in Criminal Justice System Relevance to Criminal Justice System Veteran Affairs (VA) services to veterans with anti-social behaviors Retention and number of visits mental health services Favorable environmental intervention and support Teaching social emotional education to the veterans Creating awareness among veterans on the criminal justice systemAlternative approaches to veterans who have been arrested and incarcerated Summary

Table 6

Authors	Broad Topics
Mumola Noonan Mumola Fontana Rosenheck Seal, Bertenthal, Miner, Sen, & Marmar Greenburg Roy	Rate of incarcerated veterans with mental health conditions Historical comparison of the populations of incarcerated veterans and those who have transitioned The Link between Military Service, Combat-related Problems and Criminality Diagnosis and Treatment of Combat-related Problems among veterans Awareness and alternative approaches to incarcerated veterans

Summary of the mined literature reviews

The purpose of these dissertations literature reviews was to evaluate the growing concerns on the status of the mental health services offered to veterans returning home from Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom [OEF] and Iraq (Operation Iraq Freedom [OIF]) mainly with regards to retention in mental health treatment of veterans with PTSD.

It is noted that retention as well as numbers of visits declined among OIF-OEF veterans primarily mainly due comorbid conditions and age; hence, the design of interventions should be aimed at specific health care barriers. In addition, it has also be noted that failure to effectively offer appropriate mental health services to veterans with PTSD prior to their transition from armed force to civilian-force results to increased criminal records.

Mining Existing Literature Reviews

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Thematic organizations in the three dissertations is done chronologically with authors adopting a pyramid-like approach, which starts with basic/background concepts, then diagnosis issues, and finally mental and non-mental interventions. An observation of the themes covered in the three dissertations, the common ones included growing rates of PTSD, Combat PTSD stressors or risk factors, the need for proper diagnosis of PTSD, available mental and non-mental health services for veterans facilitated by Veteran Affairs (VA).

The themes are strongly related to my dissertation topic because they are primarily covering on health services required for veterans, especially those with mental conditions or PTSD mostly arising from their role in combat particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan. Hence, these themes are mainly concerned with health services crucial for the transition of veterans from armed force (combat) to civilian force (non-combat) which is my dissertation topic.

Mining Existing Literature Reviews

References

Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2011). Serving those who served: Retention of newly returning veterans from Iraq and Afghanistan in mental health treatment. Psychiatric Services, 62, 22-27. (Dissertation)

Magen, S., Madden, E., Cohen, B. E., Bertenthal, D., & Seal, K. H. (2012). Time to Treatment among Veterans of Conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan with Psychiatric Diagnoses. Psychiatric Services, 63(12) 1206-12. (Dissertation)

White, M. D., Mulvey, P., Fox, A. M., & Choate, D. (2011). A Hero’s Welcome? Exploring the Prevalence and Problems of Military Veterans in the Arrestee Population. Justice Quarterly, First published on: 28 March 2011 (iFirst): 1-29. (Dissertation)

Mining Existing Literature Reviews

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Critical experiments Essay Paper

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Critical experiments

Model one: Women are more eager for love. Generally speaking, women appear to be more eager for love in many films, novels and stories. They suddenly fall in love with someone after the first meet.

Model two: Men are the support of the families, so they spend more time on studying and working than searching for love. Men regard to career or job as the most crucial thing after graduation. They need to make money and support their family, so they have to work hard before getting married.

Model three: Women like children, so they want to have their children after marriage. (They want to become a mother.) Usually, women are playing the role of taking care of children in most families since they are merciful.

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Critical experiments

Experiment 1: After graduation, women prefer to get married to men who are older.

Dependent variable: Older men. For a marriage to take place, the man must be older than the woman.

Independent variable: Marriage. Marriage has to take place after graduation.

Outcome: 1. Women are sensitive to the age of since they are considered to age more than men. A woman wants to look younger than the man hence will look for a man that is older to get married to.

2. Since women want to get married after graduation more than their male counterparts, they have to seek older men, or they will wait for long before getting married.

Implications: 3. Men have less to worry about in the sense of marriage like giving birth and taking care of children is mostly left to women. Men are just supposed to provide financially and are therefore not eager to get married before they get stable income.

4. Men have more responsibility to take care for and mostly prefer younger women. Since they have to marry women that have already graduated, they have first to concentrate on their job as they wait for the younger women to graduate.

The experiment supports model two.

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Critical experiments

Experiment 2: Marriage does not require a person to be financially stable.

Dependent variable: Marriage

Independent variable: Financial stability

To make the variables work, men and women must be eager for marriage after graduation.

Implications: 1. Women will fall in love with a man even if he doesn’t have money since they just want to be loved hence they can get married without being financially stable.

2. There are a lot of responsibilities that arise after marriage and men are the ones looked upon. Though there is love, a man has to consider having finances before marriage.

2. Children are part of the family and to bring out children requires finances. It is, therefore, impeccable that financial stability is established before getting married.

The experiment supports model one.

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Critical experiments

Experiment 3: Men and Women get married to get children

Dependent variable: Children

Independent variable: Marriage

Outcomes: 1. Love and financial stability do not have to exist for children to be born. A man and a woman can just get married and have children.

2. There are expenses that must be incurred for the pregnancy and the whole process of giving birth.

The experiment supports model three.

Work cited

March and Lave, 1993. An introduction to models in the social sciences.

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BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer

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BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer

If you were Rachel’s healthcare provider, what would you do? Provide a rationale for your response

All the patients in the healthcare sector are privy to patient confidentiality. Physicians are not required to release any information regarding their patient to anyone without their consent. The sole purpose of having patient confidentiality is to build a good relationship between the patient and the physician. It also prevents stigmatization of patients suffering from certain disease conditions (Stephens et al., 2012).

However, there instances where patient confidentiality is breached. This occurs in cases where there is concern or safety for other individuals. This means that the disease condition affects another party which has no information regarding the disease. In the case study, Rachel is predisposed to breast cancer since it has been established that she has the BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer (Stephens et al., 2012). Since the gene is inherited, there is a high likelihood that both her sisters may be predisposed.

Rachel does not want her sister to know that her sister has the disease condition (Bombonati & Sgroi, 2011). As already established patient confidentiality exists between Rachel and me. However, failure to inform the other party would significantly affect their health status (Bombonati & Sgroi, 2011). Thus, in this case, I would advise Rachel to talk to both her sisters since the case will not involve patient confidentiality. If Rachel does not do so, I would advise them to talk to a different genetic counselor with the hope that she changes her mind.

BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer

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Include the pathological processes associated with breast cancer. What role does the BRCA1 gene contribute to managing the patient’s care?

Breast cancer is a multistep process that is triggered with a defect in the cell cycle that regulates how cells divide in the breast. According to Bombonati & Sgroi (2011), breast cancer is made up of four steps. The first step after the dysregulation of the cell cycle processes is the formation of a flat epithelial atypia which is progress to atypical ductal hyperplasia. After some time, it progresses to ductal carcinoma in situ before finally moving the lethal stage that is known as invasive ductal carcinoma (Bombonati & Sgroi, 2011).Once the last stage has developed the disease starts to metastasize and establishes its blood supply and other important physiologic molecules.

BRCA1 gene has been implicated in the majority of the hereditary ovarian and breast cancers. Physicians normally look for this gene mutation through the family history. Once the physicians have established that patients have these genes, the patient is genetically tested, and if the results turn out to be positive, the patient undergoes prophylactic treatment which is used to prevent ovarian and breast cancer (Bombonati & Sgroi, 2011). The presence of the gene BRCA1 assists patients to know their disease state.

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BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer

Describe and explain the role of the BRCA1 and breast cancer 2, an early onset (BRCA2) gene in contribution as a risk factor for breast cancer.

Two genes that have been identified that predispose women to breast cancer. Genetic mutations in the germline of BRCA1 gene predispose 15-45% of all cases of hereditary breast cancer. It has also been associated with 60-80% of all the breast cancer cases in women.

Additionally, it has been associated with 20-40% 0f all the ovarian cancers. Mutations associated with the gene BRCA2 have been known to have a less incidence of breast cancer. The case is low compared to that of BRAC1 (Stephens et al., 2012). Anyone associated with the gene BRAC2 has a 6% incidence of developing breast cancer in their lifetime.

Analyze the risk factors for breast cancer and possible interventions to preventive health management for women and men.

Several factors increase the risks associated with mutations in the genes BRAC1 and BRAC2. Such factors include the presence of bilateral cancer in the same women, family history of breast cancer and cases of having a genetic mutation in the BRAC1 and BRAC2 gene in the family (Stephens et al., 2012). Other factors include alcohol consumption, radiation exposure, being overweight, environmental chemicals and postmenopausal weight gain.

The first preventive measure involves undergoing breast cancer screening that can detect the presence of the gene defects associated with BRAC1 and BRAC2. Several different types of tests are available. They include mammograms, use of biopsies, clinical breast exams, hormone receptor assays and magnetic resonance imaging (Stephens et al., 2012). Early detection is key to early treatment. The other factors are easily preventable. For example, physical activity reduces incidences of being overweight.

BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer

References

Bombonati, A., & Sgroi, D. C. (2011). The molecular pathology of breast cancer progression. The Journal of Pathology, 223(2), 308-318.

Stephens, P. J., Tarpey, P. S., Davies, H., Van Loo, P., Greenman, C., Wedge, D. C., … & Yates, L. R. (2012). The landscape of cancer genes and mutational processes in breast cancer. Nature, 486(7403), 400-404.

BRCA1 Gene of Breast Cancer

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Critical Research Essay Paper

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Critical Research

The aspect that was to me was the approaches that are applied in communication research. These approaches are divided into quantitative research, qualitative research, critical research, and rhetoric research. Of the four, the model that I found to be quite interesting is the critical research model. According to Wood, critical research is not interested much with understanding and explaining organizational communication (Wood, 2014). However, I learned that this model lays more emphasis on analyzing, judging, and criticizing values.

Additionally, critical research just as the word “critical” suggests, focuses more on seeing how the society or an organization exists in a world full of power imbalances. In ideal societies and institutions, there are those individuals that have power and those that lack. Researchers who conduct critical analysis strongly believe that those without power are purposefully prevented by the powerful from attaining ultimate quality. Therefore, critical scholarship tends to be inclined towards the side of weaker individuals when commenting or studying relations of dominance (Wood, 2014).

I also noted that critical theory aids us to question institutions, ideologies, identities, and interests that seem to be dominant and challenging. For instance, critical research helps us to examine whether or not ideologies that have been established within an institution are fundamentally dangerous particularly to the workers. Moreover, with critical research we are in a better position to question certain ideologies on where they came from and the effectiveness of their applicability.

Usually, managers come up with certain ideologies that tend to be inherently problematic for the employees. Therefore, it is the duty of workers to put their best foot forward and challenge such ideologies lest they become implemented for several years without being challenged. Critical is also significant since it aids in examining different institutions to identify which ones are dominant in the society and which ones are not safe for the general worker.

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References

Wood, J. (2014). Communication mosaics: An introduction to the field of communication. Cengage Learning.

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Culture and Strategy Research Paper

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Culture and Strategy

Abstract

The relationship of organizational culture and progression has been subject of different examinations over the span of the latest years. The colossal number of social variables under investigation has incited an isolated thought of society for development.

Further, managerial practice requires a concealed structure remembering the final objective to pick what society should be completed in order to improve and to study if a specific culture is a convincing and powerful coordination instruments. The motivation behind this paper is to inspect the idea of the hierarchical culture and give a brief discourse on the methodologies utilized for overseeing it in culture and strategy of organizations.

Introduction

Hierarchical culture emphatically influences organization and administration, which ascend out of its slant and its substance. Hierarchical society is described as a course of action of assumptions, qualities, norms, and perspectives, appeared through pictures which the people from an organization have made and gotten through basic experience and which offer them some help with deciding the essentialness of their general surroundings and how to absorb it. (Janićijević, 2011).

Presumptions, qualities and gages which the general population from a firm shares completely shape their interpretative game plans. Through interpretative courses of action, the general populations from an association assign repercussions to events inside and outside the association and comprehend reality that incorporates them (Janićijević, 2011). The conduct, activities and trades of the general population from an association rise out of the inducing that reality of that association has for them.

Various leveled society is a sort of aggregate interpretative course of action shared by the general population from an association, because of which they dole out proposals to events, individuals, and occasions inside and outside of the association correspondingly and treat them moreover (Janićijević, 2011). In this way, the lifestyle of an organization surmises that each one of the people from the organization likewise appreciate the organization.

The character of different parts of management and organization, for instance, methodology, structure, activity style, Organizational taking in, a game plan of prizes, and motivation, rises totally from the way in which delegates and administration understand authoritative reality and carry on in it (Janićijević, 2011). Thusly, Organizational society, through its effect on the interpretative plans and direct of the people from an organization, shares in framing distinctive portions of organization and administration.

Subordinate upon the qualities and measures contained by the Organizational society, top organization picks the technique and courses of action progressive structure, boss shape their drive style, delegates depict their behavior of intuition and needs, and the human asset executive plots the pay framework in an affiliation. A solid sort of the effect of Organizational society on an association and organization is found in the way that parts of an association and organization vary in various sorts or sorts of legitimate society. By the day’s end, specific sorts of society in association’s propose different techniques, legitimate structure models, pay frameworks, organization styles, and so forth (Janićijević, 2011).

One of the key parts of organization that are impacted by definitive society is the organization of progressive society. Definitive society impacts the choice of satisfactory Organizational culture organization correspondingly it impacts every single another bit of organization. Social suppositions and qualities shared by the general population from an association pick the path in which workers and executives will value the association itself, and thusly the satisfactory approach to manage transform it (Janićijević, 2011).

Culture and Strategy

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What will be resolved as a suitable, effective, or steady methodology for changing the association will rely on upon an exceptionally fundamental level on the common suppositions and estimations of operators and managers worked in their interpretative game plans. Whether the developments are incremental or radical, complete or deficient, encouraged starting from the top or from the base up, concentrated on the culture of the “hard” or of the “touchy” some segment of association, will all, metaphorically talking, rely on upon how the pioneer and the general population from the association see its working and a suitable, strong, or down to earth method for taking off improvements (Aguiree, Post, and Alpern, 2013).

This is the motivation driving why the strategy of legitimate culture organization will be all around assorted in various Organizational social requests. For instance, if various leveled society is told by the estimation of adaptability, this recommends the general population from the association will consider cultures to something unprecedented and obliging for the association and themselves.

For this situation, cultures are slanted to be reliable, and thusly additionally incremental in nature, in light of the way that there will be no need for radical cultures adequately by virtue of the way that they are consistent (Janićijević, 2011). Additionally, cultures will be driven with less resistance yet rather more eagerness by the agents. Then again, if Organizational society contains the estimations of predictable quality and conservatism, then the general population from the association will consider cultures as dangerous, both for themselves and the association.

Cultures will be phenomenal, yet when they do happen they will be radical and wide. They will be composed to a wonderful level of resistance from and an all around insignificant level of sponsorship by the general population from the association, who will be for the most part sit out of gear powers of progression (Janićijević, 2011).The degree of this paper is to appreciate and examine the legitimate society and organization philosophies to manage the troubles stood up to by the various affiliations.

Culture and Strategy

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Review of Strategies for Organizational Culture

In the extent of various leveled culture association, the considered scholastic specialists and honing boss has been basically focused on three central solicitation: what cultures, why it cultures, and when it cultures. Along these lines, the three key subjects in various leveled culture research have been causes or variables of legitimate culture, definitive culture content, and the character of the progressive culture process.

The conclusion came to has been that authoritative cultures are begun as a result of either internal or external causes. From this time forward, two sorts of hierarchical culture have been isolated by the measure of cause: authoritative headway and alteration (Aguiree, Post, and Alpern, 2013).

Concerning culture content, the survey of forming demonstrates that progressive cultures are segregated in two imperative courses: cultures of definitive statics (structure and framework) and cultures of legitimate segments (process), besides cultures of work structure (assignments) and cultures of social structure (relations)). At long last, research has displayed that, as showed by the character of the strategy, various leveled cultures can be tireless or sporadic.

Tenacious cultures are incremental (first request cultures), divided, and transformative while sporadic cultures are radical (second request cultures), complete, and dynamic. The part of the pioneer in the midst of the time spent culture has moreover been a fundamental issue in definitive culture research (McGuire, 2003; Madu, 2005).

Not at all like the issues of cause, substance, have process, and authoritative culture organization, hierarchical culture methods been less present in investigation. Authoritative culture framework joins the system, strategy, or route in which cultures are realized in an affiliation. This definition proposes that movements are continually orchestrated and that, at whatever point we examine culture execution method, we truly discuss masterminded hierarchical cultures (McGuire, 2003; Madu, 2005).

The way that the primary course of action of authoritative culture strategy oversees organized culture system in like manner adds to this impression. In any case, this does not for the most part should be the circumstance. Cultures can similarly be unconstrained or unconstrained, and their anticipated approach, strategy, or the best approach to constitute a culture framework. They can be a strategy for recognizing authoritative culture, regardless of the way that the movements are off the cuff (McGuire, 2003; Madu, 2005).

Culture and Strategy

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While most specialists while examining business or corporate approach truly mean adjusted, formalized, organized decisions, distinctive scientists point out that strategy, can rather be fathomed as a bona fide security partner particular business decisions and giving them consistency, which is new and just thusly legitimized as a framework, rather than a normal, orchestrated decision arranged early (McGuire, 2003).

Likewise, in the field of hierarchical culture, culture framework may be fathomed as a masterminded decision of the administrators of advancement, furthermore as a creating case of development through which cultures are recognized and which grabs its shape entirely when the movements have been made sense of it. Starting now and into the foreseeable future, the discernment of legitimate society structure in this paper is to some degree more wide than the one in the much grasped work by Chin and Benne, who were the first to accumulate progressive society frameworks (McGuire, 2003).

The judicious observational system is developed on the suspicion of the common sense of Organizations and the comprehensive group who constitute them (Sami, 2012). Affiliations are seen as a shrewd means for completing the common focuses of their kin through aggregate activity. Individuals are overseen as regular creatures lead with no other individual’s data interest.

Along these lines, societies are executed by demonstrating the general population from an association that they are reasonable, i.e., reinforced and critical from the viewpoint of accomplishing progressive objectives, furthermore obliging to the self-vitality of the general population from the alliance (Sami, 2012). The supposition is that the general population from the relationship in which the developments are performed will, as normal creatures, carry on as exhibited by their reasonable given side hobbies.

Therefore, in the event that they are given watch that a society is to their most essential purpose of inclination, they will remember it.Cultures are driven through the typical system of information party and utilization of learning in dealing with the issues that the affiliation faces. Essentially, cultures are driven through the methodology of utilization and testing of specific theories, which give off an impression of being adequate in a given setting (Long, 1997).

Culture and Strategy

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Authoritative cultures are driven in five stages: issue conspicuous verification, information get-together and examination, the time of alternative diagrams, determination of the perfect procedure, and execution of the game plan. In the adjusted framework, the key driver of societies is accurately the data with respect to the issue which should be taken care of and the conceivable fundamental reasoning strategies.

On the off chance that the data is instigating and clear, and on the off chance that it is decisively in all actuality, the general population from an association will, as shrewd creatures, perceive the execution of societies (Luthans, and Doh 2008; McGuire 2003). It is thusly vital that data gathering is driven purposefully and in a methodologically noteworthy way, ideally by an authority (it is as regularly as could reasonably be expected the case that advice are contracted in this way).

The strategy of granting information concerning the issue and with respect to the movements which will deal with the issue is uneven and beginning from the top. Correspondence includes top organization, or authorities picked by top organization, showing the “truths” of the bona fide condition, the theoretical model which enables the offered situation to be understood ‘legitimately’, and also the proposition for culture which really ascend out of this perception (Luthans, and Doh 2008; McGuire 2003).

No dialog or talk is joined into which the people from the affiliation would be allowed to test, address, or rename the “truths” or theoretical models showed to them (Luthans, and Doh 2008; McGuire 2003).

Culture and Strategy

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It is clear that the executives of headway in this system are the top association, and that the heading of progression is starting from the top. The part of the general population from the connection is sit without moving and is obliged to enduring the data and acting in like way. The level of support of the alliance individuals is low, and the response to this course of action of the people in the developments is, most perfect circumstance, assertion. As a last resort, the imperviousness to culture is high (Luthans, and Doh 2008; McGuire 2003).

Leadership/Management and Organizational Culture

Organizations are not any more liable to accomplish business objectives without a key business process that are associations liable to accomplish new social abilities without a key authority process. Whenever consolidated, the business methodology and authority system can work all the while to grow new center capacities essential for the association’s future.

We present the defense that it is administration, as a deliberate gathering of similarly invested individuals, which can exhibit and take part in the better approaches for doing and being that advances the way of life and empowers diverse business results (Dilobe &Haccoun, 2010; House, Javidan, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002; Eromafuru 2013; Woszczyna , 2011; Salamzadeh, , Ahmadi & Akbari, 2012; Eromafuru, 2013).

Culture and Strategy

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It is an initiative that imagines future course, adjusts assets, and rouses the dedication of individuals toward this normal reason. A Leadership Strategy can control that basic procedure of the association’s advancement through initiative toward a typical reason for building the couple of, new capacities inside of the heart of the association – its way of life. Adjusting to culture recommends that associations need go to new center capabilities. The movement from an item prompted administrations drove IBM required that the way of life of this once ambling behemoth turn into a group based, the client engaged, elegant organization (McGuire, 2003).

Figure: Leadership Strategy McGuire (2003).

According to Haccoun et.al, (2010); Dorfman et.al, (2002); Eromafuru (2013); Woszczyna , (2011); Akbari et. al, (2012); Eromafuru, (2013), the key mechanical assemblies for executing society in perceiving observational procedure are assignments, or work positions, and not the social structure of the affiliation and the relations within it. Consequent to the affiliation is appreciated as a prudent contraption for achieving shared targets, societies in it are recognized fundamentally through changing the formal, masterminded, “hard” parts: endeavors, structures, methods, methodologies, strategies, and the association with its environment.

Simply first demand societies can be instated and coordinated through the sound observational system since the method does not allow renaming of the assumptions of reality; this future a bit of second demand societies. As a rule, societies don’t require all that much time; beside when the information gathering technique is greatly mind boggling (McGuire, 2003).

Culture and Strategy

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A deterministic, as opposed to the voluntary supposition of human activity, underlines this technique. The procedure of progress does exclude the through and through freedom and decision of individuals from the association. The strategy, or of progress, is as of now dictated by the target way of the issue, and it is the undertaking of the individuals who settle on choices in the association simply to apply it to sufficient information and hypothesis (Dorfman et.al, 2002; Eromafuru, 2013).

Power coercive strategy translates that a connection is seen as a political structure in which the general population who have the force likewise have the advantage to deal with the association and along these lines change it. The man is not a run of the mill but rather a political being, who submits to the will of the all the more compelling. Along these lines in force coercive framework force is the key driver and contraption for society (Dorfman et.al, 2002; Eromafuru, 2013).

The general population who have the force; when in doubt the pioneer or top association, coordinate the developments and, by mauling the force they have, power these developments on interculture individuals from the connection. The general population from the alliance is relied on to obey and execute the developments unquestioningly. This strategy depends on upon the supposition that the advantage to urge the course of aggregate activity in one party in like way climbs up out of force. Along these lines, the sub-par individuals from a social event in like way anticipate that the pervasive individuals will set the course in which the developments will be executed (McGuire, 2003).

The correspondence is one-sided and coordinated starting from the top. It comprises of the pioneer or administration achieving a choice with respect to the tackling of an issue, and after that conveying to their devotees and association individuals how, when, where, and who will execute the progressions which will take care of the issue. The main operators of progress are the pioneer or administration of the association who has the ability to execute the progressions.

Culture and Strategy

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The interest of the individuals from the association in culture is low, and their part is uninvolved and boils down to minor dutifulness. In this methodology, the data stream course is starting from the top, in light of the fact that the specialists of progress just advises the association individuals from what is anticipated from them and does not get input. For the same reason, the culture exercises are one-sided (Dorfman et.al, 2002; Eromafuru, 2013; McGurie, 2005).

The power-coercive methodology can deliver just first request culture since it does exclude changing the suppositions, qualities, or states of mind of the individuals from an association. The pioneer who applies this culture system is not keen on changing the convictions and estimations of the individuals from the association so they acknowledge the progressions; rather, the pioneer, by the utilization of force, just drives them to consistence.

This is the reason the progressions will be conceivable just inside of the current worth structure, which prompts first request cultures. Of the considerable number of systems, force coercive procedure prompts the quickest results and this is its primary leverage and the motivation behind why it is utilized generally regularly. In any case, its inconveniences are exceptionally various; for instance, the decimation of inspiration and dedication, extremely solid imperviousness to cultures, and the absence of comprehension of cultures prompting their wasteful usage (Dorfman et.al, 2002; Eromafuru, 2013; McGurie, 2005).

They all Dorfman et.al, (2002); Eromafuru, (2013); McGurie, 2005) concur this society strategy is centered around relations and social structure, as opposed to on work structure and assignments. Since reliance relations are the establishment of this framework, it commonly relies on upon the relations between the effective overseers of societies and the humble individuals from the association. Therefore, control coercive strategy depends on upon relations and the social, nice, “delicate” segment of relationship as an instrument for society.

Power coercive strategy translates the viewpoint of human activity as unshakable, compelling a perspective of the world in which individuals are free directors who can independently pick their activities. In any case, this totally adaptability infers just to the capable pioneer or chief and not to the straggling remains of the alliance (Dorfman et.al, 2002; Eromafuru, 2013; McGurie, 2005)…

Culture and Strategy

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The developments are driven by first changing the suppositions, qualities, standards, and viewpoints shared by the association individuals, and after that besides changing their activities and correspondences, or relations. Along these lines, it is unequivocally these relations and social segments of the alliance that are the vital instruments of headway in regularizing re-educative framework, and not its “hard” parts, i.e. tries.

In this structure, societies happen at the level of relations between the connection individuals. Standardizing re-educative methodology merges the system of reframing, or changing, the socially-made picture of reality, from which societies of both aggregate suppositions and qualities rise (Dorfman et.al, 2002; Eromafuru, 2013; McGurie, 2005).

By researchers, Dorfman et.al, (2002); Eromafuru, (2013); McGurie, (2005); Akbari et. al, (2012); in this manner societies in this reasoning are created both starting from the top and from the base up, and the data stream is multilateral. In the standardizing re-educative structure, the managers of headway in a connection are both the association and the authorities. The alliance individuals are dynamic people in society with an irregular state of endeavor: from this time forward the solidness to culture is sensibly low.

Societies composed by regularizing re-educative philosophy assemble the dedication of the association individuals to the new picture of reality and new connection and is of a higher quality than the past two strategies which request the alliance individuals’ insistence and detached assent. The regularizing re-educative methodology might start and induce second request society since it determines changing the path in which the general population from an alliance handles their general surroundings. However the execution of this strategy takes longer, as creating suspicions, qualities, gages, and dispositions is not a quick technique.

Culture and Strategy

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Conclusion

The paper has demonstrated that there is a theoretical explanation behind the supposition that various leveled society is one of the variables in the determination of authentic society association systems. In a split second it is the key to correctly test this presumption by testing the speculations made in this paper. It is also fundamental to look at it and how the way of life impacts the ability of the way of life framework and its flourishing. From this paper, a supposition additionally develops that there might be a criticism impact of organization society strategy on various leveled society.

Inside and out that truly matters, this paper can be prescribed to affiliation association which is planning progressive societies, to help with picking the association strategy for society that is awesome with the way of life of their affiliation. This will add to the suitability and accomplishment of the way of life procedure. With the target this should be conceivable they should have an OK learning of the way of life of the connection they are changing, besides of the open organization society procedures.

Culture and Strategy

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References

Aguiree, D., Post, R. V., & Alpern, M. (2013). Culture’s role in enabling organizational culture. Booz & Company.

Dilobe, N., & Haccoun, R. (2010). Measuring Core Dimension of Organizational Culture: A Review of Research and Development of New Instrument. University De Catholique.

Divan, S. M. (2012). CHANGING “THE WAY WE DO THINS” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). California State University, Sacramento, LA.

Donell, O., & Boyle, R. (2008). Understanding and Managing Organizational Culture. Dublin, Ireland: IPA.

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Culture and Strategy

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Weber’s distinction between formal rationality and substantive rationality

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Weber’s distinction between formal rationality and substantive rationality

Rationalization of society is an idea that was conceptualized by Weber (Carroll, 2011). This paper provides an exhaustive explanation of what Max Weber meant by differentiating between substantive rationality and formal rationality. Moreover, with the use of the concepts of substantive rationality and formal rationality, this paper analyzes whether the Human Relations Theory and Scientific Management are substantively rational, formally rational, neither or both.

Rationalization is basically a product of technological advancements and scientific study in the West. Lippman and Aldrich (2013) reported that rationalization, by decreasing the tradition’s hold on society, brought about new practices. Rather than the behaviour of human beings being motivated by traditions and customs, rationalization resulted in behaviours which were guided by practicality and reason.

Rationalization changed modern society to a great extent and it also played a vital role in the development of capitalism. The main types of rationality include formal rationality, substantive rationality, theoretical rationality and practical rationality (Sterling & Moore, 2012). This paper is focused only on formal rationality and substantive rationality.

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Formal rationality and substantive rationality

Substantive rationality – people may consider various possible actions or values, and trying to make them consistent. Max Weber, in the early 20^th century, referred to this as substantive rationality. Weber saw it as problematic in the contemporary society largely because rationalization of social life makes it very hard for individuals to pursue certain values (Sterling & Moore, 2012). For instance, it might be very hard to pursue religious or family values in contemporary society thanks to economic pressures as well as dominance of bureaucratic institutions and organizations.

In essence, substantive rationality entails deciding the most appropriate choice of a means to an end as guided by each of the collective values. Put simply, a person is trying to make his or her system of values and his or her actions matching or in agreement with each other (Kemple, 2013). Derksen (2014) noted that substantive rationality is understood as goal-oriented rational action in the context of ultimate values or ends. It is the extent to which economic actions serve ultimate values in spite of what they might be. This concept is holistic thinking that focuses on problem solving in a system of values.

Formal rationality on the other hand entails making decisions which are founded on regulations, rules, as well as the bigger social structure of the society. In essence, formal rationality entails quantifying or calculating the most efficient means to an end (Hedoin, 2012). It is also the degree of quantitative calculation or accounting that is theoretically feasible and actually applied.

As Weber pointed out, formal rationality refers to straightforward means-ends rational calculation. For instance, a person has a goal to accomplish and he/she then takes rational steps – that is, steps which are founded on science, logic, observation or prior experience – to accomplish that particular goal (Townley, 2012).

Formal rationality, as Hedoin (2012) stated, is a more extensive form of rationality which typifies business organizations; bureaucratic organizations in particular. This results in universally applied regulations, laws and rules which typify formal rationality in the Western world, especially in the scientific, legal and economic institutions, over and above in the bureaucratic type of domination.

Some of the examples of formal rationality include rational-legal types of authority for instance the modern judicial and legal systems (Townley, 2012). The fear of Max Weber was that formal rationality was becoming increasingly dominant in the western contemporary society, and that the significance of substantive rationality was actually reducing.

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Scientific Management

Frederick Taylor was a contemporary of Max Weber and he conceptualized the idea of scientific management which seeks to increase results and performance by making employees more efficient and work more rational. According to Frederick Taylor, scientific management gave emphasis to the following:

(i) discovering effective and efficient means of working by using scientific techniques;

(ii) selecting the finest, most skilled personnel to perform work tasks and recruiting them;

(iii) providing professional development and training to improve the efficiency of these employees in the business organization; and

(iv) closely monitoring employees’ achievement of well-defined goals and standards (Sterling & Moore, 2012). In today’s age, most organizations and companies have espoused and implemented the fundamental principles of scientific management and rationality (Kemple, 2013).

The scientific management model proposed several principles applicable in management. Some of these principles comprised the study as well as application of scientific techniques to the tasks contained in different roles in order to improve workers’ efficiency (Derksen, 2014).

Moreover, it suggested a reform of the processes of recruitment which ensured that new employees were selected in a scientific way to ensure that the workers who were hired were actually suitable for the job. Scientific management made a lasting and vital contribution in terms of the development of contemporary management.

The application of scientific management principles is formally rational and therefore scientific management can be considered as being formally rational. The approach underlying such thinking is that people’s behaviour within organizations is rational, and that premeditated rational action has to be taken in order to ensure that control is effected over their actions for the purpose of the organization itself (Lippman & Aldrich, 2013).

It is in this sense that management control is in fact very consciously rational and purposive. Weber suggested that the movement toward formal rationality would result in the development of interactions and practices aimed at facilitating calculation or efficiency instead of promoting aesthetics, morality or tradition (Kemple, 2013).

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Scientific management by Taylor affirmed to have introduced a more formal rationality into the process of management. This assertion has a number of vital implications. It enabled the management of a business organization to be taught. If prescriptions of the management could be identified through experiment and study, then it is possible for individuals to attain management status (Giannantonio & Hurley-Hanson, 2011).

It is not essential to be born into managerial authority positions as it had been supposed by the old social class structures. Through training and experience, even individuals from disadvantaged ethnic groups or social classes could become managers. Another supposition was that scientific management would be helpful in getting rid of social conflicts.

If facts that are scientifically based could become the starting point and foundation of managerial decision-making, then the arbitrary exercise of managerial power would need to be eradicated and there would not be any rational disagreements with regard to managerial policies (Derksen, 2014). On the whole, scientific management offered the likelihood that conflicts of opinion could really be resolved through rational investigation.

According to Ritzer (2011), one familiar modern organization today that has effectively espoused and implemented the main principles of scientific management and formal rationality is McDonald’s – a company whose practices and structures typify and illustrate the ideas of Frederick Taylor and Max Weber in action. Ritzer (2011) pointed out that McDonald’s – as well as the McDonaldization of other firms in today’s era – is really not a novel or new phenomenon; rather, it is the product of the processes of rationalization which have been taking place during the past century and influenced commercial, governmental and even educational organizations.

In essence, McDonalized corporations have 4 main purposes or characteristics: (a) control over individuals entering the organizations by means of non-human technology; (b) efficiency, or the best technique of getting from one point to another point; (c) calculability, or a highlighting on the quantitative facets of services and/or products offered; and (d) predictability, the assurance that over time in every location, services and products would actually be the same (Lippmann & Altman, 2013).

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According to Max Weber, scientific management is formally rational. Max Weber did not see the success of formal rationality only in the bureaucracy. The other place where he saw the triumph of formal rationality is the modern capitalist factory which was greatly influenced by the formally rational military along with its discipline (Ritzer, 2011). Max Weber saw the organizational discipline within the modern capitalist factory as totally formally rational.

He saw the height of this type of formal rationality within the American system of scientific management: Weber stated that with the help of appropriate measurement methods, the individual worker’s optimum profitability is computed similar to that of any material means of production. Basing on this, he noted that the system of scientific management in the United States successfully proceeds with its rational conditioning as well as training of work performances, therefore drawing the final conclusions from the discipline and mechanization of the plant (Wren, 2011).

In essence, man’s psycho-physical apparatus is totally adjusted to the demands of the machines and tools – put simply, it is functionalized, and the person is shorn of his or her natural rhythm by the functional specialization of muscles and by creation of a most favourable economy of physical effort (Hedoin, 2012).

Human Relations Theory

Also referred to as behavioural management theory, the Human Relations Theory is focused more on the people in a place of work than the processes, procedures and rules. Rather than directives coming directly from the senior company executives, this theory emphasize communication between managers and staff members and allow them to interact with each other to help in making decisions (Townley, 2012).

Rather than providing employees with quotas and demanding specific procedures, staff members are exposed to emotional as well as motivational tactics in order to get them to enhance and improve their productivity. This style basically focuses on creating productive, satisfied employees and helping employees to invest in the organization.

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The Human Relations Theory is neither substantively rational nor formally rational. As a kind of decision-making, formal rationality is subject to calculation which goes into an action to improve its likelihood of success. In formal rationality, the most efficient means to an end is calculated or quantified (Lippman & Aldrich, 2013). In essence, formal rationality forces order on the society by means of quantifiable, rigid terms through decisions which are founded on universal regulations and rules.

The Human Relations Theory is not formally rational at all. As per the Human Relations Theory, the attitudes of people in an organization have the potential of affecting their productivity either in a negative or positive way. The place of work can be likened to a social system that comprises informal groups that bear significant influence over the workers’ behaviour and attitude.

Additionally, this theoretical framework emphasized on the style of supervision and management. It stated that the adopted styles of supervision and management have a direct impact on the workers’ job satisfaction level (Derksen, 2014).

Furthermore, the Human Relations Theory is really not substantively rational. Even as many business organizations operate basing upon the Human Relations Theory, Wren (2011) pointed out that this kind of management has its shortcomings. Business organizations risk their employees becoming very social or easily influenced by personal opinions and emotions when making important decisions instead of depending on hard data.

In addition, dismissing workers after they become invested in the organization or reprimanding them for poor performance might be harder and more difficult. In spite of these risks, this theory can increase employee productivity and retention rates in the organization.

As workers feel more valued by their organization, they would invest in it and its greater good (Wren, 2011). Substantive rationality is a kind of decision-making that is actually subject to values as well as an appeal to ethical norms and it does not consider the nature of consequences: the human relations theory is not at all substantively rational.

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Conclusion

To sum up, Max Weber stated that substantive rationality is basically a goal-oriented rational action in the context of ultimate values or ends. It entails deciding the most appropriate choice of a means to an end as guided by collective values. Conversely, formal rationality entails making decisions which are founded on regulations, rules, as well as the bigger social structure of the society.

It involves quantifying or calculating the most efficient means to an end. Since the application of scientific management principles is formally rational, scientific management is in fact formally rational. Nonetheless, the Human Relations Theory is neither substantively rational nor formally rational.

References

Carroll, A. J. (2011). Disenchantment, rationality and the modernity of Max Weber. Forum Philosophicum: International Journal For Philosophy, 16(1), 117-137.

Derksen, M. (2014). Turning Men into Machines? Scientific Management, Industrial Psychology, and the ‘Human Factor’. Journal Of The History Of The Behavioral Sciences, 50(2), 148-165. doi:10.1002/jhbs.21650

Giannantonio, C. M., & Hurley-Hanson, A. E. (2011). Frederick Winslow Taylor: Reflections on the Relevance of The Principles of Scientific Management 100 Years Later. Journal Of Business & Management, 17(1), 7-10.

Hedoin, C. (2012). Weber and Veblen on the Rationalization Process. Journal Of Economic Issues (M.E. Sharpe Inc.), 43(1), 167-187.

Kemple, T. (2013). Presenting Max Weber. Canadian Journal Of Sociology, 38(3), 407-412.

Lippman, S, & Aldrich, H. (2013). The rationalization of everything? Using Ritzer’s McDonaldization thesis to teach Weber. Teaching Sociology, 31, 134-145.

Ritzer, G. (2011). Explorations in social theory: From metatheorizing to rationalization. Boston, MA: SAGE.

Sterling, J. S., & Moore, W. E. (2012). Weber’s Analysis of Legal Rationalization: A Critique and Constructive Modification. Sociological Forum, 2(1), 67.

Townley, B. (2012). The role of competing rationalities in institutional change. Academy Of Management Journal, 45(1), 163-179. doi:10.2307/3069290

Wren, D. A. (2011). The Centennial of Frederick W. Taylor’s The Principles of Scientific Management: A Retrospective Commentary. Journal Of Business & Management, 17(1), 11-22.

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Weber’s formal rationality and substantive rationality

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Weber’s formal rationality and substantive rationality

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Formal rationality and substantive rationality

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Scientific Management

(i) discovering effective and efficient means of working by using scientific techniques;

(ii) selecting the finest, most skilled personnel to perform work tasks and recruiting them;

(iii) providing professional development and training to improve the efficiency of these employees in the business organization; and

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Human Relations Theory

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Conclusion

References

Carroll, A. J. (2011). Disenchantment, rationality and the modernity of Max Weber. Forum Philosophicum: International Journal For Philosophy, 16(1), 117-137.

Hedoin, C. (2012). Weber and Veblen on the Rationalization Process. Journal Of Economic Issues (M.E. Sharpe Inc.), 43(1), 167-187.

Kemple, T. (2013). Presenting Max Weber. Canadian Journal Of Sociology, 38(3), 407-412.

Lippman, S, & Aldrich, H. (2013). The rationalization of everything? Using Ritzer’s McDonaldization thesis to teach Weber. Teaching Sociology, 31, 134-145.

Ritzer, G. (2011). Explorations in social theory: From metatheorizing to rationalization. Boston, MA: SAGE.

Sterling, J. S., & Moore, W. E. (2012). Weber’s Analysis of Legal Rationalization: A Critique and Constructive Modification. Sociological Forum, 2(1), 67.

Townley, B. (2012). The role of competing rationalities in institutional change. Academy Of Management Journal, 45(1), 163-179. doi:10.2307/3069290

Wren, D. A. (2011). The Centennial of Frederick W. Taylor’s The Principles of Scientific Management: A Retrospective Commentary. Journal Of Business & Management, 17(1), 11-22.

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