A study on how teenage pregnancy affects education, employment, and housing.
Introduction
Teenage pregnancy is a major social problem affecting many countries worldwide ranging from the first world to third world countries. According to research, UK has the leading number of teenage pregnancies. Every year, there is an increase in the number of girls between 13 and 19 who get pregnant (Magaraggia, 2010).
An increased number of teen pregnancies have been attributed to various factors such as peer influence, lack of parental guidance on sexual health as well as socioeconomic factors such as poverty. Most researchers link lack of parental guidance, peer influence and mass media influence as the primary causes of teen pregnancy.
Despite extensive measures laid down to deal with teenage pregnancy, the rate remains rampant. Teenage pregnancy leads to school drop out for the victim, poor housing due to increased cost of living and unemployment for the relatives due to increased responsibilities. (Magaraggia, 2010).
Objectives of the study
The major objectives of the study will include:
To identify factors contributing to teen pregnancy.
To determine and describe the effects of teen pregnancy on education, employment, and housing.
To determine the various ways of curbing teen pregnancies
Rationale
In the current world, the number of teen pregnancy has been a growing concern. The United States has been found to have the highest number of pregnant teenage girls. Therefore it is an issue that requires to be addressed to help in reducing the numbers.
Aim
The study will aim at getting relevant information on teen pregnancy, and this will substantially contribute to prevention of pregnancies among adolescents. Information gathered from the study could be used in education institutions as well as healthcare facilities to offer the necessary information regarding teen pregnancy.
Literature Review
Today, teenage pregnancy remains a major issue. According to Minnick & Shandler 2011, among the industrialized countries, UK has second highest rates of teenage pregnancy. The Census conducted in 2008 which indicated that the birth rate of mothers between the ages of 14-19 was 41.5 per 1000 women. Each year, 14 million children are born worldwide to teenage mothers between the age of 15 and 19 UNICEF, 2012. Magaraggia (2010)established teenage pregnancy as a social problem which requires being addressed.
Many factors have been attributed to high incidence of teenage pregnancy. The following factors have been attributed to the increased rates of pregnancy among adolescents. These factors include; inadequate and inaccurate information on sexual health, peer pressure which offers an avenue to discuss sex matters and mass media which gives teenagers easy access to pornographic materials (Magaraggia, 2010)
Teenage pregnancy may have detrimental effects in all aspects of life including education where the affected person as to drop out of school to be able to take care of the child. Also, it may lead to unemployment being attributed to low self-esteem as well as inability to perform assigned duties(Girma & Paton, 2015). Consequently, the victims find themselves living in substandard houses due to reduced finances.
Conclusion
Curbing of teenage pregnancy requires application of different approaches including sexual education and raising awareness. Both the society and policy makers can as well be involved solving in providing solutions to the risk factors of teenage pregnancy (Girma & Paton, 2015). Therefore, combined efforts from families, healthcare facilities and the society as a whole will be required to help in coming up with a solution to this nightmare.
References
Girma, S., & Paton, D. (2015). Is education the best contraception: The case of teenage pregnancy in England? Social Science and Medicine, 131, 1–9. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.02.040
Role of Media in Influencing Decision-Making in P-20 Education
The Role of Media in Influencing Decision-Making in P-20 Education
Research Question
What is the role of media in influencing decision-Making in P-20 Education?
Rationale
The media, especially television, video, and social media, are often viewed negatively in the education sector. In early childhood and K-12 models of education and in more conservative environments, children are even discouraged from exposure to media such as video and social media, which are considered bad influence over learners. In such surroundings and circumstances, it is perceived that media can only affect education in a negative way.
However, this negative perception about the influence of media on education is fast changing in many settings, institutions, and jurisdictions as more studies unearth the real nature of the correlations between media and learning or education (Jabbar et al., 2014). In recent times, it has become more apparent that media not only affect learners but also decision makers and policymakers in educational institutions.
Decision-making is core to the success of all educational concepts, models, systems and institutions. Given the fundamental influence and role of media in modern educational systems, the media, most likely, influence the people and processes in learning institutions in several ways (Galway & Sheppard, 2015). Thus, the proposed study is justifiable in several ways. First, the study may enable P-20 education stakeholders to establish whether media is a core external force that affects their decision making, thus influencing P-20 education’s relevance and competitiveness in the education sector and in economic circles.
Second, from the study’s findings and recommendations, it may be possible for P-20 education leaders and learners to appreciate the potential role of media as an incentive to decision-making and education improvement. Third, the study may be of help to P-20 education’s stakeholders by highlighting how media can be used to influence federal, state, or local educational policy to favor the pursuit of skilled, knowledgeable, and productive learners and workforce.
Background Information
The P-20 is a model of education that builds on the principle that educational programs, financial and human resources, strategies, performances, expectations, and outcomes should be focused on the early years of learners’ growth and development. Unlike the early childhood and development concept, the P-20 model covers the kindergarten or early childhood years, the K-12 years, and the post-secondary school years.
The main purpose of P-20 education is to ensure that pre-school, K-12, and college years are formative years during which self-discovery ought to be emphasized. Instead of the public education system mandating everything that students learn, educators should be more concerned with preparing learners for their future life’s challenges. The years following the P-12 should be characterized by academic performances and outcomes that would imply quality adult life.
P-20 education also covers learners’ lives during their workforce years. That is, an education should prepare an individual to survive and perform in the workforce long after graduation with post-secondary education. The skills acquired during learning must translate into expertise in the workforce.
Essentially, P-20 education is based on the realization that the knowledge and skills that learners acquire in their early childhood or K-12 education should prepare them for college education and their lives in the workforce. Thus, all the stages of academic development are weighted equally and allocated the deserved financial and human resources and effort.
Numerous studies have been conducted to establish the connection among communication, communication technology, communication media, the learning process, and education. While studies have been done on the influence of media on education in general, no studies have been done to link media and decision-making in the concept of P-20 education. Most studies have just plainly established the relationship between media and education.
In one such study, Cuc (2014) sought to establish the influence of media on both formal and informal education. In the study, Cuc (2014) not only studied the influence of media on learning but also rephrased the research question and hypothesis to help the research establish how media affects the process of learning and the actual and potential relationships between media and learning. The commonest media found to greatly influence education are books, television, radio, video, and social media (Cuc, 2014).
Malin and Lubienski (2014) established that the practical dimensions by which media influences education are the development or inculcation of new interests in learners, adoption of novel leisure-time skills, availability of fresh entertainment options and expanded areas of learner preoccupation.
Malin’s and Lubienski’s (2014) findings concurred with Lubienski, Scott and DeBray (2014) who established that while media has positive influences on education, most learners pick up media messages and turn them into behaviours and cultures, which interfere with learning processes, habits, and activities. Clearly, media influences education in various ways and may possibly greatly influence decision-making in emergent concepts such as P-20 education in the technologically advanced 21st century.
Data Sources and Collection Methods
The proposed study will combine qualitative and quantitative research approaches to collect and process exhaustive data on the variables and constructs of the study. The study will specifically target P-20 stakeholders as the source of its data and information, targeting a population of 1500 and a sample size of 300. The sample size will be representative of P-20 education officials, educational programme managers, school and college administrators, teachers, local education leaders, education system’s beneficiaries and the public. Selective methods of sampling such as purposive sampling, expert sampling, snowball sampling, modal instance sampling and diversity sampling will be used in the study.
The main reason purposive sampling techniques are preferred for this study is that these techniques enable the researcher to access the targeted sample rather fast (Shields & Rangarjan, 2013). Second, purposive sampling techniques make the identification of the potential respondents with the desired characteristics. Purposive sampling also enables the use of a variety of qualitative research approaches (Mannay, 2010).
Data will be collected using questionnaires, interviews, observations and focus group discussions while data analysis will be done using Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) software and Microsoft Excel. The questionnaires will contain structured and unstructured items to capture qualitative and quantitative data. However, the study’s independent and the dependent variables will be identified prior to the development of the data collection tools.
The analysis and presentation of the findings will be done using inferential and descriptive statistics. The study will use Spearman’s Rho, regression and ANOVA to establish correlation between the dependent and independent variables of the study and establish the role or influence of media on decision making in P-20 education.
Possible Impact on the Field
The proposed study is likely to impact educational policy and advocacy once the role of media in decision-making in P-20 education is established. From the findings of the proposed study, P-20 educationists may be able to design and realign their advocacy efforts champion the preferred educational policies notwithstanding the findings of earlier studies on the role of the media on education. The study may also erase any doubts on the role of media on education that may have been reported without much evidence, particularly on the effects and effectiveness of media on education.
In particular, P-20 educationists and other stakeholders may be able to associate media with educational decision making for the first time. From the proposed study’s findings, educational policy advocates may read implications of media on education that have elided research experts in their interpretation of study findings. Hence, the study may be of great help to the policymaking processes in P-20 education.
The other likely impact of the study is the elimination of the disconnect that exists between high school and college on one hand and adult life on the other. From the study’s findings, educationists may be better placed to give the most appropriate and effective classroom support and guidance to learners that would prepare learners for the challenges of adult life. The study may also help in the better use of media to make educational decisions that would create a seamless kindergarten-to-college education system.
References
Cuc, M. C. (2014).The Influence of Media on Formal and Informal Education.Social and Behavioral Sciences, 143(1); 72.
Galway, G., and Sheppard, B. (2015). Research and Evidence in Education Decision-Making: A Comparison of Results from Two Pan-Canadian Studies. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(1); 10.
Jabbar, H., Goldie, D., Linick, M., and Lubienski, C. (2014). Using Bibliometric and Social Media Analyses to Explore the “Echo Chamber” Hypothesis. Educational Policy, 28(2), 281-305. Retrieved on November 2, 2016 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0895904813515330
Lubienski, C., Scott, J., and DeBray, E. (2014). The Politics of Research Use in Education Policymaking. Educational Policy, 28(2), 131-144. Retrieved on November 2, 2016 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0895904813515329
Malin, J. R., and Lubienski, C. (2014). Educational Expertise, Advocacy, and Media Influence. Retrieved on November 2, 2016 from http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/1706
Mannay, D. (2010). Making the Familiar Strange: Can Visual Research Methods Render the Familiar Setting More Perceptible? Qualitative Research, 10(1): 91.
Shields, P., and Rangarjan, N. (2013). A playbook for research methods: integrating conceptual frameworks and project management. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press.
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Barriers to physical activity among the adolescents (Age 13-18 Years) in rural and urban areas of Deptford
Abstract
Objectives: Physical activity among the adolescents is associated with psychological, social and physical benefits. Moreover, research indicates that physical activeness observed in adulthood originates from childhood. Physical inactivity is associated with obesity and diabetes type 2 (Craggs et al., 2011). This study is developed to explore physical activity barriers in a representative sample of adolescent in Deptford, London Borough of Lewisham.
Design: The study is conducted in rural and urban areas of Deptford in London Borough of Lewisham. The study design is mixed research design. The quantitative part will consist of 159 randomly selected adolescents, whereas the qualitative part will consist of semi-structured interviews with the participants and focus group discussions.
Outcomes: The study findings will identify the physical activity barriers among the adolescents, and the strategies to overcome them.
Conclusion: Increase of public knowledge on importance of physical activity is crucial as it helps the society to understand the health benefits of adopting active lifestyles. The study findings help in understanding physical activity determinants among the adolescents (13-18 years).
Title: Barriers to physical activity among the adolescents (Age 13-18 Years) in rural and urban areas of Deptford
Background
Physical activity is associated with psychosocial and physical benefits for everyone including children and young adults. Physical inactivity correlates with increase of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes type 1 and obesity among the adolescents. The current levels of physical activity in the UK are low (Rothon et al., 2010). For instance, in England, only 66% of males and 56% of females meet the recommended physical activeness. In Scots, only 62% of the population is physically active. These findings may not be realistic as most of the studies conducted are self-reporting, which indicates that the reporting could be a little bit biased but it portrays the exact picture on levels of physical activeness among the UK (Department of Health, 2011).
Research indicates that physically active lifestyle originates from childhood. Therefore, childhood health promotion is an effective strategy in obesity prevention (Craggs et al., 2011). In the UK, several community based programs and school based programs have been developed to increase physical activeness knowledge and health benefits in the population. However, increasing health activity information in the community does not automatically translate to increase in physical activeness among the adolescents. Therefore, this paper explores the determinants of exercise among the adolescent. The findings gathered will help to design effective interventions that will increase adolescent’s physical activeness across the ethnic groups (Rothon et al. 2010).
Study Problem / Purpose
High levels of physical activeness in young lives are associated with normal skeletal development, increased wellbeing, good-metabolic, and cardiovascular system. However, physical activeness in the UK is a huge public health concern, and is shown to decline in adolescence (Craggs et al., 2011). There are a number of factors that influence physical activity including biological, environmental, psychological and social factors. In depth interviews on physical activity among the youth have also been explored, where socioeconomic status, gender and societal (peer and parents) have been correlated with physical activity or inactiveness among the adolescents (Craggs et al., 2011).
However, these study findings correlates mainly to cross-sectional differences and therefore are limited to formulation of hypothesis concerning the potential mediators and factors. Therefore, this study explores factors that hinder physical activity by examining the potential barriers of physical activity among the youth. The purpose of this paper is to strengthen the evidence base in order to inform the process of designing effective interventions (Oliveira, 2013).
Relevance / Study Rationale
Physical inactiveness is associated with wide range of health complications such as cardiovascular disease, type-2 diabetes, obesity and psychosocial disorders such as low self esteem, depression, and eating disorders. Childhood obesity is a growing threat to the UK’s public health (Oliveira, 2013). In UK, 3 out of every 10 children between age 2 and 15 are obese or overweight, and 1 in six children in the same group is obese.
Research estimates that these lifestyle diseases reduce life expectancy of the adolescents, and account for 1-3% total health expenditures. Psychiatric morbidity in adolescents is a major issue in the USA. The median prevalence of mental health in adolescents in UK is 10%. Most population based cohort investigations as randomized controlled trials associated with depressive symptoms in adolescents (Craggs et al., 2011).
Physical inactivity is the leading cause of mortality in developed countries, and it accounts for 22-23% of cardiovascular diseases, 17% colon cancer, 13% strokes, 15% diabetes and 11% breast cancer incidences. In Scotland, physical inactivity contributes to 2,500 deaths per year and consumes approximately £94 million of NHS health budget. Other non-aggregating non-healthcare costs such as low productivity leads to additional costs of £8.2 billion per annum, with additional £2.5 billion for addressing obesity and its related complication (Department of Health, 2011).
Lewisham borough of London is has the highest rate of childhood obesity. Statistics indicates that about 25% of Lewisham are below 20 years. The population is diverse, with 69% of school children are from minority ethnic background, with 37% of them living in poverty. The National Child Measurement Program (NCMP) reveals that prevalence of childhood obesity in this borough is higher than England average.
This is an indicator that adolescents residing in this borough are not physically active. Therefore, understanding barriers to physical activity in adolescents (representative sample) will help address the challenges, and in designing of effective strategies that promote physical activity among the vulnerable population group (Department of Health, 2011).
Brief Literature Review
Physical activeness among children and adolescents plays an important role. In current society, technology such as computers and social media has reduced the desire for young adults to play or be involved with any physical activity. Adolescent and children physical activeness decrease with age, with the decline is lower in boys and girls. The barriers associated with physical activities should be addressed with enthusiastic support and enthusiastic (Oliveira, 2013).
Sedentary lifestyle is identified as a high risk factor for cardiovascular and obesity. The prevalence rate of obesity and overweight in adolescents is a major public health concern. Physical activity is a habit acquired through influence friends, family, coaches, teachers and environment. Young people who are not exposed in environments that build their confidence in their physical abilities tend to adopt sedentary life. Research indicates that movement activities such as jumping, running, throwing serve as great building blocks for children physical activity. Therefore, children who lack avenues to develop these skills at young age are not likely to become physically activity in the future (Kelishadi et al. 2010).
Physical activity is essential for children healthy development. Research indicates that physical activities have beneficial effects on children body composition, blood sugar, cholesterol, and muscular strength. Physical activity is also associated with better academic performance and general well being. Instilling positive behaviors in children and adolescents makes them to carry over these behaviors into adulthood. Age and sex are the most demographic factors associated with physical activity in adolescence. Boys tend to be more active as compared to girls. Research indicates an inverse association between age and physical activity. Patient level of education and socioeconomic factors also determines the adolescent’s level of participation in physical activity. Age is inversely associated with physical activeness in adolescents. This indicates that as adolescents get older, their level of physical activity declines (Heitzler, 2010).
Psychiatric morbidity in adolescents is a major issue to public health. In a study that reviewed psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents indicated that the median prevalence to mental health condition is about 12%. In UK, a comprehensive study of mental disorders among children and adolescents was reported at 10% and 4% emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety. The emotional disorders were observed in adolescents than in children. If no effective treatment is put in place, the children and adolescents are at risk of having poor academic results, isolation, substance abuse and suicidal thoughts.
There is increase in literature that associates physical activity with reduction in emotional disorders on adults, but there is limited research on its effectiveness in adolescents (Rothon et al. 2010). The increased frequency of mental illness in adolescents and its associated long-term complications makes it important area to research on, particularly on protective factors. More research is required in order to explore further on the relationship between physical activity and reduction of mental disorders among children and adolescents because there is limited evidence of this issue from longitudinal studies (Rothon et al., 2010).
There are four key hypotheses of psychosocial explanations that explain the association of physical activity with reduction of emotional disorders. The first hypothesis posits that the ‘time-out’ provided by physical activity enhances mood. This theory has been supported by experiments that indicated that physical activity was more efficient in improving people’s mood during the relaxation period. The second explanation indicated that ‘mastery’ of the physical activity task such as learning of new tasks gives a person a sense of pride for a new achievement, which leads to improved mood(Gomes et al., 2016).
The third explanation suggests that the indirect effect of physical activity is that it provides opportunities for social interaction which also improves mood. The interaction during the exercise classes, team sports as well as social support that comes with it improves mental health. Lastly, physical activity relates with improved self efficacy and self esteem. People who engage in physical activity programs have the potential to modify their body shape and improve their self image which improves mental well being (Rothon et al. 2010).
Maternal education is inversely correlated with high trend of physical inactiveness. Research indicates that family house hold income is associated with vigorous and moderate physical activity. There is some positive association between presence of recreational facilities in the neighborhood and extent of children physical activity. The proximity of playgrounds and parks was positively associated with physical activity. There is positive association between safety of neighborhoods and physical activity among the adolescents. Other determinants include weather and presence of sidewalks as well as bike lanes (Oliveira, 2013).
Understanding physical activity barriers in developed countries is important when developing of effective strategy. In most literature, lack of moral support from families and peers and lack of psychological support is one of the main barriers to physical activeness among the adolescents. Most parents believes in children’s education achievement which makes them place it as a priority and limits the availability of safe and easy access for the adolescents, inhibiting them an active health lifestyles. Children from families with high socioeconomic status have low level of physical activity.
This is an indicator that the successful parents put priority to studying and achieving of good grades. This is attributable to insufficient knowledge on importance of integrating physical activity in their routine lives. Therefore, increasing community knowledge on importance of physical activity, and ways it boosts children learning activity and school performance will make them adopt physical activeness as their lifestyle (Dunton et al., 2009; Gomes et al., 2016).
With increase in technical advancement, it has made peoples life to be easy and convenience and increasingly less active. However, individual person may have their own reason for living a sedentary life. The most common reasons for not exercising is lack of time to exercise, low self motivation, lack of interest and enjoyment of exercise, boredom, low confidence and ability to become physically active, fear of having injuries, low self efficacy, inability to set personal goals, poor self management skills, low support and encouragement. However, the major personal barrier to engaging in physical activity includes energy, time and motivation issues (Gomes et al., 2016).
A study conducted in 2013 aimed at identifying the external and internal barrier to physical activity as well as exercise among middle aged women and geriatric population indicated that their major challenge is lack of time and inadequate physical facilities. Other issues identified were cost, transportation and safety issues. The environment and its neighborhood influence children level of physical activity.
There are many factors that affect people in the society including availability of cycling trails, walking paths as well as recreational facilities. Factors such as transport availability, crime and pollution will discourage people from becoming physically active. The social environment also plays an integral role in influencing physical activeness among the adolescents (Ding et al., 2011).
Research Objectives / Research Question / Hypotheses
There is growing body of research focusing on association between physical activity and psychological as well as physical performance among the adolescents. To better understand these correlations, this study will examine the barriers to physical activity among this age group in order to develop scientific literature that can be used by the healthcare providers to design targeted interventions (Craggs et al., 2011).
The study theorizes that socioeconomic and social cognitive factors are the key determinants of physical activity among adolescents in rural and urban areas of Deptford, Lewisham borough of London. Therefore, the study’s hypothesis statement is as follows; In adolescents, socioeconomic and social cognitive factors, as compared demographics factors determine the level of physical activeness among the adolescents. The research question is – What are the barriers of physical activity among adolescents (13-18 years) residing in rural and urban areas of Deptford, Lewisham borough of London.
Study Methods
Study Design: The study designed used in this study is mixed research method. The research design is chosen so as to explore a phenomenon, describe it and report the findings. In this type of research design, combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used to give a reasonable basis for developing evidence based strategy (Abbott and McKinney, 2013).
The study data will be collected from epidemiological study of adolescents from three schools in Deptford. The study participants will be recruited from three Local Education Authority (LEA) boroughs in Lewisham. Further funding will be obtained from the relevant authority to facilitate study follow up.
Subjects / Participants: There will be 159 participants aged (13-18 years) from comprehensive education facilities in Lewisham borough or London. The sample size is determined by size calculation sample.
Inclusion / exclusion criteria: The study participants must be 13-18 years of age. The participant should be from any ethnic group and socioeconomic status. The study will exclude participants with history of any disease, cannot communicate in English and are above 18 years of age.
Sampling: The study sample will be selected as guided by simple random sampling. This sampling method will help ensure that there is equal probability to select adolescents (age 13-18 years) when creating the study sample size. This sampling method is chosen because it will help reduce potential human errors when creating study sample.
This implies that the sample size used will be a highly representative of population being studied. This in turn will help the students make statistical inferences from the findings of the sample to the entire population.
Recruitment: Information about the study will be given to school representatives a week before school visit. The information will also be emailed to adolescent’s parents. Parents are allowed to opt out their child. The adolescents who will not be opted out will be randomly selected according to the study inclusion and exclusion criteria. The recruited participants will be invited in study rooms of respective schools, where they will be briefed about the study.
They will be issued with a written consent that must be signed by the student and their parents. Students were informed that they could withdraw from the study at their wish, and they could decline to answer questions that they did not like or were uncomfortable answering them.
Intervention details: The research team will administer the classrooms questionnaire that will be answered in 40-50 minutes. Three types of questionnaires will be used in this study. The first questionnaire is one that evaluates on students social cognitive factors, one that evaluate socio-demographic variables such as gender, age, family income and education and one that examines the level of physical activeness and environmental factors. To analyze the participant’s experiences and perceptions, grounded theory approach will be utilized.
This will consist of a total of 7 focus group discussions and 5 in-depth interviews to explore the students’ perception on physical activity and barrier to adopting physical active lifestyles. The focus group discussions and interviews will be done using semi-structured open-ended questions which will provide an opportunity for the respondents to explain in detail their perceptions and opinions about barriers to physical activity. The discussions will be audio taped and supplemented with short hand notes. The data collected from audiotapes will be transcribed and analyzed accordingly.
Variables / Data Collection: The questionnaires are designed to collect data variables such as subjective norms, attitudes, self efficacy, and behavioral control regarding physical attitudes. The information gathered will help the researcher formulate adolescents’ perception of physical activity and associated barriers. The questionnaire will be evaluated with 5- point Likert-type scale where 1 indicates Highly Disagree and 5 highly agree. For the qualitative study, the variables that will be collected by the focus group discussion include perceived barriers to physical activity (Abbott and McKinney, 2013).
Data analysis: For qualitative part of the study, the data collection will be done simultaneously with data analysis as guided by grounded theory approach. Therefore, data obtained from focus group talks and interviews will be analyzed manually and guided by constant comparative analysis. Analytical tools will be used to ask questions and for comparative analysis so as to identify emerging themes and concepts.
For quantitative study, the dependent variables include the level of physical activity (Vigorous, Moderate, and Low). The independent variables are socio-demographic factors such as ethnic background, age, gender, social cognitive factors, parent’s level of education, and socioeconomic variables. For these data, statistical analysis will be done using SPSS windows software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA; Version 15.0). The statistical tests that will be conducted include Chi-square, analysis of variance (ANOVA), Spearman correlation, and logistic regression analysis. The significance level is set at p<0.05.
Ethical Considerations
The initiative aims at identifying barriers of physical activeness among adolescents residing in urban and rural areas of Deptford. This implies that before implementing the project, the researcher is expected to obtain approval and support from Institution review boards. In this case, the board committee will be briefed about the proposed project and its implication to public health.
This effective communication will help clear doubts held by the members. The informed consent will be used in order to ensure that the participants are well briefed about the study findings, and to ensure that they are not coerced or forced to participate in the proposed study (Bowling, 2014).
The participants used in this study are below 18 years, under the governing law, these people are still under their parents care. Therefore, written informed consent will be obtained from parents of each participants and oral assent will be required from each of the participants. Confidentiality is a major issue when dealing with the adolescents. Most of them will not open up unless you ensure them that their opinions will be protected.
To maintain confidentiality, the institutions names and names of the participants will be not mentioned, instead, each of the institution will be given a code, and the participants will be issued with numbers anonymously (Abbott and McKinney, 2013).
Other considerations
Limitations
The most common potential barriers in community based projects is inadequate knowledge, skills, poor attitudes towards evidence based projects, economic restrictions as well as so organizational influences (Dunton et al., 2009; Gomes et al., 2016). Lack of knowledge is a potential limitation as it results to inadequate understanding on how the evidence gathered promotes community’s well being.
This might make adolescents parents refuse to give consents. This is correlated to attitudinal barriers and weak beliefs, which are very difficult to control than knowledge barrier. The socio-organizational limitation includes little or no support from the managements and disagreements as well as conflicts among the involved stakeholders (Offredy and Vickers, 2013).
To overcome these barriers, effective strategies will be applied. This includes parent education about physical activity and its impacts on adolescent’s psychological and physical wellbeing. Parent education will be reinforced using pamphlets. In regards to economic crisis, the researcher will explore sources of funds through various agencies and charity acts. To remove attitudinal barriers and weak beliefs will be done through regular meeting to discuss the pros and cons of proposed interventions.
Effective communication is the key solutions to all research limitations. The weekly meeting and focus group discussion with the relevant stakeholders will enhance collaborative and supportive relationship. Research findings show that team oriented approaches enhances strong communication and promotes strong interaction between involved stakeholders (Bowling, 2014).
Budget
The project implementation will take approximately eight months. Effective implementation of the exercise will require planning. Part of the planning includes establishing preliminary budget which recognize the following areas (See Appendix 2). The annual cost for principle investigator is about £16000 for the eight months. The principle investigator assistant responsibilities will be to train the stakeholders about the project and assisting in data collection activities. The training cost of the participants and their parents will cost about £3000. The printing cost is estimated to be about £4000. Therefore, the total implementation cost is expected to be £28000.
Plans for Dissemination
The project will be implemented in six phases. The first phase is that of seeking approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and head of department. IRB will review the safety and feasibility of the study in promoting public’s health. After approval, the second phase will involve planning and designing of the project. This involves strategies that outline project implementation process, funding and sourcing for resources (Tracy, 2012). The third and the fourth phase will involve carrying out of the proposed project.
This include recruitment process, screening the participants using the inclusion and exclusion criteria, signing of informed consent, carrying out individual interviews and focus group discussions and assessing participants cognitive, socio-demographic and socioeconomic factors. The five phases is the data collection and data analysis phase. The sixth phase will involve compiling the study findings, and making a comparative analysis with the existing literature so as to establish the evidence base (Abbott and McKinney, 2013).
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Rothon, C., Edwards, P., Bhui, K., Viner, R. M., Taylor, S., & Stansfeld, S. A. (2010). Physical activity and depressive symptoms in adolescents: a prospective study. BMC Medicine, 8, 32. http://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-32
Tracy Ross (2012) A Survival Guide For Health Research Methods Maidenhead. McGraw-Hill Education.
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Improving mental health efficiency by using of community health workers to decentralize health care services
Overview of healthcare industry, markets and competition
Recent changes in the UK in National mental Healthcare Services (NHS) have introduced new complexities into the accountability arrangements of the healthcare facilities. The current mental health systems are best described as command and control system. The mental budgets as well as policy are strategically set centrally by the Department of Health (DoH) and the government is administered locally by the NHS organization but accountability lies with the DOH.
The situation is more complex than the explanation of the ‘command and control.’ The balances between the central government and the local government have led to fluctuating autonomy and misallocation of resources (Normand, 2011).
The UK mental healthcare system relies on highly centralized and costly expertise to delivery healthcare services. This type of system relies in intuitive medicine, and is best suited for healthcare issues that are complex and episodic. In addition, this type of healthcare system is associated with mismatch for chronic diseases, preventive measures and wellness care; which results into additional barriers and disparities especially among the underrepresented population.
It is time for the National Health System (NHS) to depart from a one-size-fits all model and develop channels that will enable better delivery of services that can serve the dynamic needs of the population (Clayton, 2009).
This study proposes that decentralizing mental healthcare services will aid in lowering cost of care, broaden accessibility and maintain as well as improve quality of care. For instance, the physician specialist will have the capacity to work in outpatient, the nurse practitioner will effectively provide care in retail clinics, and lay community health promoters or workers will improve health education, thereby reducing health complications associated with disease progression.
For example, the system will improve diabetic self management at patient’s residents. This measure is in line with Institute of Medicine (IOM’s) health disparity vision of confronting ethnic and racial disparities using strategies that improve care delivery and or implement preventive measures and to enhance risk reduction (Black & Gruen, 2005).
Perceived problems in current healthcare systems
The fundamental issue that is believed to affect mental healthcare activities includes quality of care, safety issues, access to healthcare, cost of care, and delivery of services. These issues arise because of the problems that affect healthcare systems which include misallocations of national health resources, allocative inefficiency, and increased inequalities. Most of the health facilities get less proportion of healthcare budgets. An example of healthcare system that suffers from misallocation of resources is the mental healthcare system, which suffers due to misallocation of resources within the sector (Goodwin, Gruen, & Iles, 2006).
In my facility, funding is done on low cost effective-interventions such as non-essential prevention strategies. For instance, People diagnosed with substance use along with mental health (commonly referred to as dual diagnosis) is associated with many health demands, yet they suffer too much to access quality healthcare services. These patients have complex needs and often experience multiple adversities in their lives including deprivation, childhood abuse, poverty and loss of support from their family members.
These persons are also associated with multiple needs such as homelessness and unemployment that makes them become prone of exploitation. This increases their risk of poor physical health, self harm, suicide and perpetrating violence. Dual diagnosis is unpopular in the UK, partly because the society is entrenched perceptions of substance abuse where most people believe that is a lifestyle choice instead of a health issue that needs urgent care and treatment (Normand, 2011).
Dual diagnosis is one of the issue facing mental health and substance abuse. In the past one and half decades has lead to development of specific initiatives but all of them have had no improvement. The same changes have been implemented since the 90s. Today, mental health services today still exclude people if the problem is not perceived as substance related disorders. The misallocation of resources is associated with inefficient delivery of care as most of the healthcare resources are wasted (Kirk and Glendinning, 1998).
For example, it is inefficient to give patient a brand name over drugs cheaper generic ones that have same efficacy. The misallocation of resources also results to underutilization of resources which also affects the productivity efficiency. In current type of healthcare system often leads to indiscretions such as specialists handling numerous uncomplicated cases at high cost, cases that primary care centers could handle with ease (Normand, 2011).
The aforementioned factors have lead to increase on cost of care without matching consumer’s health benefit. In addition, the existing weak monitoring system enables leakages of public subsidies to private sectors and medical covers which are already financially stable. This results to increased health disparities where poor and under-privileged in the society lack care affordability (World Health Organization, 2000).
These affected populations unfortunately are the majority, and often receives low quality of care. One of the best strategies is to train the staff in mental health facility in order to equip them with skills that will help make dual diagnosis by improving their knowledge and skills but have not managed to change the society’s perception and values.
Therefore, the two great challenges in this aspect of mental health a) to increase awareness on dual diagnosis in order to change attitudes people’s attitudes on mental health and b) to provide effective services to people diagnosed with dual diagnosis, especially in this unprecedented mental health crisis (Normand, 2011).
Change in mental healthcare systems
Change in the healthcare system is intended to improve the performance by adjusting the way services are delivered and relocating or roles and responsibilities for specific healthcare services and the processes of delivering care to the population including financing, implementation process, monitoring as well as regulation. There are various drivers of change in the current health care system including the expected shift in political, social and economic factors that will come with new governing system. In addition, the increase in technological advancement should be enhanced to not only improve quality of care, but also the accessibility (Normand, 2011).
The key drivers for the proposed change within the mental healthcare system in NHS includes changes in population growth, demographic characteristics due to immigration, technological advancement, health’s infrastructure conditions, and increased patient level of acuity. Change in ideologies refers to the modifications of frameworks used by the public health services to deliver care. For instance, new labor in 1997 removed department of health monopoly which created more opportunities for private sector and voluntary services that helped better healthcare system to some extent, at higher cost of care.
Similar changes have been observed with the coalition government in 2009 which removed government agents and gave more roles to local authorities and the private providers, which led to increase misallocation of resources. Therefore, decentralizing delivery of healthcare services using community workers will create freedom for providers to innovate strategic services that meet the specific demands for patient needs (Pickard and Glendinning, 2002).
In addition, the current infrastructure conditions are too old and are not adaptable to provision of modern care for dual diagnosis. The current healthcare infrastructure demerits include high cost of care, reduced staff retention and inconsistencies in delivery of care. Therefore, vertical integration of decentralized health care in this community is aimed at addressing these challenges by reconfiguring healthcare services to suit the specific community demands.
For instance, technological advancement has made it easy to access patient information and also increased portability of patient’s health information and education of appropriate optional treatment. It is time to tap on the innovative techniques to increase efficiency in delivery of mental healthcare system and manage delivery of care in a way that maximizes population health benefits (Duguid & Pawson, 1998).
Changes in population growth and the demographic factors is also another driving force for decentralization of mental healthcare services by the NHS. The increase in population has put pressure on the current healthcare system as it has led to dilapidation of healthcare facility caused by congestion due to population growth, which has led into high demands building of bigger healthcare facilities that will accommodate the patients.
In addition, the gentrification of the low socioeconomic households by the middle class has led to inconsistence in delivery of services. The increased patient level of acuity and knowledge on quality issues is pushing the healthcare providers to improve delivery of care in order to meet their expectations (Clayton, 2009).
Recommendation
Change refers to any alteration of healthcare services with the aim of improving its quality. Changes in healthcare system are wide and ranges from revolutionary technology to refining of health workers responsibilities. There are three types of change namely originates, borrowed and adapted. Borrowed changes are easy and cheap to implement. However, these types of changes are often not appropriate to meet the local needs as no community is similar to another, which implies that one size fits to all may not apply (Goodwin, Gruen, & Iles, 2006).
The proposed change is adapted change, which mainly implies that the strategies are borrowed from elsewhere and gets modified to fit the community needs. However, factors such as situational circumstances, management approach, wrong adaptation, and changes in political as well as economic environments determines if the change process will be effective or not.
Originated changes would be more effective as it involves more creativity than the adapted changes, but their implementation process is expensive as it requires an organizational climate that promotes innovation and creativity. The proposed change is a technical change as it modifies the ways in which normal activities are carried out by altering the organization and program structures (Clayton, 2009).
Decentralization is kind of change that involves dispersal of administrative, political and financial functions. It involves a process of shifting authority, power and responsibility from national to local government levels of the healthcare systems. The main advantages for vertical integration of decentralization in mental healthcare system includes technical benefits such as improving delivery of healthcare services, leading to better health outcomes. In addition, this method eradicates challenges associated with bureaucracy and monopoly that hinders effective delivery of healthcare services to the needy service users (Atun, 2007).
Political benefits associated with decentralization of healthcare services are that it extends democratic control of healthcare services to the needy individuals at community level. This may also increase opportunity for the citizens and services users to participate in decision making processes. This is effective strategy as it helps the government to identify the specific community needs.
Decentralization process also helps in minimizing financial burden associated with public procurement processes by transferring risks from a central point and distributing them to lower and private sector. This helps promote innovativeness and competition, which further improves the service user’s outcome (Bossert, 1998).
In this context, decentralization is the recommended as an approach of improving administrative activities that will help deliver healthcare services. This is also done for the purposes of achieving effective service delivery. In addition, decentralization helps improve local participation as well as autonomy in healthcare services. This acts as a means of redistributing power when it is effectively done, thereby reducing health disparities associated with tribal and regional tensions.
Decentralization is also invoked as a means of increasing cost efficiency in mental health care systems, which is attained by giving the local units better and greater control over the available resources as well as healthcare revenues. In turn, this approach sharpens NHS accountability in healthcare services and operations. The approach helps to covertly offload financial burden from resource poor governments to local service providers (Saltman et al., 2007).
Conclusion
The Mental healthcare system relies upon on highly centralized and costly. The optimal for mental healthcare system is based on intuitive medicine, and is best suited for complex and episodic mental health complication. This increases additional barriers to healthcare care disparities and the minority groups. It is important for the NHS mental health care system to depart from the one size fits all paradigms and to establish better channels that will ensure that healthcare delivery is improved to meet the growing dynamic needs for the underprivileged service users.
The potential impacts of decentralization intervention are that it creates opportunities that improve the prevention strategies. The balance between the primary and tertiary preventive measures regarding saving. The strategy will also increase access to healthcare services by ensuring that the downstream expenses are balanced. In addition, the approach will help replace the costly unnecessary services with less expensive and quality ones.
References
Atun, R. (2007). Privatisation as decentralization strategy, Chapter 14, 247-266. In Saltman, R. B., Bankauskaite, V., & Vrangbaek, K. Decentralization in Healthcare. European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies Series. McGraw Hill, Open University Press. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England.
Black, N., & Gruen, R. (2005). Understanding Health Services. Open University Press, Berkshire, England
Clayton, M. (2009). The Management Models Pocketbook. Management Pocketbooks
Duguid, S. & Pawson, R. (1998). Education, change and transformation: The prison experience. Evaluation Review. 22(4), 470-95
Goodwin, N., Gruen, R., & Iles, V. (2006). Managing Health Services: Understanding Public Health. Open University Press, Berkshire, England
Kirk, S and Glendinning, C. (1998). Trends in community care and patient participation: implications for the roles of informal carers and community nurses in the United Kingdom. Journal of Advanced Nursing 28:370-81
Normand, C. (2011). The healthcare system in Ireland: Controlling growth in expenditure and making best use of resources. Chapter 3 (pp 57-74). In Callan, T. (editor). Budget Perspectives 2012. Economic & Social Research Institute (ESRI) Research Series 22, Dublin.
Pickard, S and Glendinning, C. (2002). Comparing and contrasting the role of family carers and nurses in the domestic health care of frail older people. Health and Social Care in the Community 10: 144-50
Saltman, R. B., Bankauskaite, V., and Vrangbaek, K. (2007). Decentralization in Healthcare. European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies Series. McGraw Hill: Open University Press.
World Health Organization (2000). The World Health Report 2000. Health Systems: Improving Performance, WHO, Geneva.
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A low calorie or healthy option microwavable food is a fresh concept which has gained a lot of interest among consumers. A majority of consumers are evaluating the food products provided in the market and consideration is given to the healthiest diet. Thus, introduction of microwavable products made up of low calorie has gain a high market due to consumer’s health concerns. To cater for the needs of the market, managers must formulate methods that will increase the product’s market share and profitability while increasing value to consumers.
As such, the intention of this paper is to outline a plan for managers in anticipation of rising prices, examine the major effects the government have on production and employment, determine whether government regulations are fair in the food industry, examine the major complexities under expansion via capital projects, and lastly suggest how a company could create convergence between the interests of stock holders and managers. The Company aims to keep the prices of its products as inelastic as possible.
Low calorie dietary is the new form of healthy foods and it has gained a lot of popularity among the consumers. In schools, homes, and restaurants, the concept of healthy feeding is not new. With the emergence of many chronic diseases, people desire to live healthy lives and lifestyles, thus the need for low calorie diets as will be produced and sold by Lean.
The purpose of this paper is to assess the main impacts the government has on production and employment, if government policies and laws facilitate fairness, determine the complications of expansion, and finally, offer recommendation on the merger of a company’s stakeholders and the management. For sustainable growth and profitability, the firm seeks to have the prices of its products as inelastic as it possibly can (Sullivan and Sheffiran 2013).
It therefore means that the strategy used for pricing should have no effect on the way consumers recognize and purchase the commodities. In general, the type of demand occurs only for products that are essential for the normal living of consumers. However, the situation is not the same for food products that are microwavable. Elasticity of demand for low calorie products highly depends on the offered price, availability of substitutes, expenditure on promotions, income level of consumers, and prevailing economic conditions.
Considering the demand function and elasticity, low calorie products are favorable in a monopolistically dominated market. In a monopolistic competitive market, buyers and sellers are usually few. Therefore, if one company raises its prices, consumers shifts to another brand. As thus, firms in this market increase demand for their products through differentiation.
ThProfit (NP) = Total revenue (TR) Total Cost (TC)
According to the FOC of profit maximization,
=Marginal Revenue =Marginal Cost = 0
So Marginal Revenue = Marginal Cost
By applying the elasticity of 1.9, it was stipulated that demand for low calorie microwavable processed products is low. Since the company purposes to keep the prices of the products inelastic, it will strategize on differentiation to obtain a competitive advantage in the market. Differentiation is important since consumers will be able to pick the product from other substitutes hence increasing the sales. More so, it is proved that when product differentiation is noticeable to competitors, a firm’s market power and leadership increases. As such, it is advisable for the firm to strategize on product differentiation to increase the rate of returns.
Globally, the government usually has the mandate of regulating the market to protect consumers and the firms. However, whether markets are regulated or unregulated they are always influenced by the forces of demand and supply. As such, government regulation is critical for stability. For instance, the government handles externalities through provision of public utilities such as roads, contracts enforcements, and supply of currency (Wall and Griffin 2013). All theses aspects are better done by the government compared to private firms whose main aim is profit making.
A lot of discussion has been made on determination of the activities that the government is limited. Though regulations are important, extreme policies and laws are adverse to the growth of an economy. An ideal economic climate is only possible when government regulations are in accordance with the prevailing market conditions. The main reasons that the government involves itself in a market are enactment of policies and rules to facilitate exchange between buyers and sellers, and enforcement of the policies.
In the area of employment government sets rules for employers to follow when selecting, recruiting, and compensation. No employee should be paid below the set minimum wage rate, they are to be treated humanely and allowed to interact and work freely without fear of intimidation. Labor unions and other industrial agencies set regulations for firms follow failure to which employees have the right of suing the firm.
The government also limits production through the taxation rates, production costs, and prices for raw materials (Frank 2013). When terms are favorable, firms are able to produce to full capacity but when there is over production, the government sets higher terms to stabilize the market. As such, the effects the government will have on the company are limitation of production capacity and selling prices, employment, and eventually profitability since regulations are costly to the firm.
It is the mandate of the government to ensure the market is stable and at equilibrium for benefit of all stakeholders (MIT 2012). For instance, without intervention, big mergers and monopolistic conditions would be possible leading to excessive exploitation of the consumers. Thus, the government gets involved by limiting mergers and monopoly situations. It is fair for the government to get involved in the low calorie microwavable commodities to control prices, limit entrants and exit for fair market competition, and avoid emergence of monopolistic powers that would made the firm irrelevant.
When many unregulated firms are in the market, price wars would lead to consistent low prices causing the prices to be unstable. More so, unregulated market causes poor quality goods to be introduced as firms seek to minimize production costs for profits.
Thus, the major reasons for government involved are to control prices, ensure that the market is stable for protection of local firms, and protect consumers from exploitation. For microwavable foods, firms have to correctly label the contents of the products and they should be processed in certain measures to avoid provision of unhealthy contents. Moreover, regulations also assist in protection of the environment where firms are supposed to observe efficient waste management practices, as well as reduce usage of production methods that release poisonous gasses in the environment.
An example of government involvement is the control of industries in China which have the tendency of producing smog that forcing people to wear masks to avoid getting contaminated. These goods are exported to US and other countries and the government has set measures to control the packaging of the products, their distribution and usage. Additionally, the government enforces policies to regulate the banking and finance industry by setting minimum interest rates so that consumers are not exploited and for banks to remain in business.
Some capital projects that the firm could undertake are mergers or acquisitions for expansion purposes. The reason for the projects is to increase market share, share operational risks, and increase market leadership and profitability (Harris et al. 2014). However, these projects bring complexities such as collusion between the shareholders and management. Managers tend to get additional capital from the reserves or by requesting shareholders to top up using their savings.
Shareholders may not be willing to use their reserves or contribute extra capital due to uncertainty of the venture. To avoid the complexity, managers should undertake projects that have high chances of generating returns in the short run by carrying out comprehensive evaluation of the project. For instance, managers should acquire a brand that is already dominating in the market to avoid experiencing losses.
Convergence between managers and shareholders is created through a firm’s strategic decision making process and through the use of financial statements. Whereas the shareholders own the company, they have limited control over the decision making process and the actions of management. On the other hand, managers are responsible for controlling the affairs of the firm.
Managers seek for higher income and allowances irrespective of a firm’s performance while shareholders are usually interested in higher profits for increased dividends. As such, shareholders seek for firm’s growth through mergers. However, mergers may compromise manager’s job security and control leading to divergence between the interests of shareholders and managers.
Therefore, strategic decision making should be done such that managers get allowances and salaries depending on the generate profits. If profits are high, their salaries are high and vice versa. As a result, managers will become productive so as to get high profits and allowances and in the process, the interests of shareholders will be met and both parties will be satisfied. Therefore, convergence of shareholders and managers lead to higher profits since managers become preoccupied in generating high revenues so that they pay is high and when the revenues are high, dividends are also high.
Instances that bring convergence of the interests of managers and shareholders include: managers being employed on contractual terms such that their contracts are renewable if they perform as required, and application of commission terms whereby managers are paid depending on the income generated at a certain period.
It therefore shows that the government should get involved in microwavable food market to ensure products are of high quality, control monopoly activities, and stabilize the market. For better returns, managers and shareholders should have a common vision and the needs of each party considered. The firm is likely to excel and attain market leadership through product differentiation since demand is inelastic, ensure all the needs of stakeholders are met, and follow government conditions as they relate to production and employment.
References
Frank, R. (2013). Microeconomics and Behavior, (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
McGuigan, B. P., Moyer, R. C., &Harris, F. H. (2014).Managerial economics: Applications, strategies and tactics, (13th ed.). Stamford, CT: CengageLearning.
Mit. (2012). Government Regulations in the Market. University of Cambridge.
About 1 percent of the entire population has intellectual disability, which is a considerable disorder in adaptive as well as intellectual function in the early stages of development (Aveyard 2014). Individuals with the intellectual disabilities rate of developing mental illness are greater in comparison to the whole population, however, challenges in communication, access to services, literacy means that mental issues in persons with intellectual disability are inadequately recorded.
Moreover, the majority of persons with intellectual disability exhibit challenging behaviors, meaning characters of intensity, duration, and frequency that endangers their physical safety or those around them or even restricts accessing community services.
For a long period, there have been concerns that psychotropic medicine especially, antipsychotics are overused as such prescribed for problem behavior instead of diagnosing mental sickness, regardless of insufficient proof on their effectiveness. Nonetheless, getting an accurate amount of psychotropic in persons with learning disabilities is intricate, while present literature is limited due to varying descriptions.
In spite of inadequate proof from policy context, there is no detailed assessment of psychotropic in adults with learning disability in United Kingdom primary care conducted, while results from other nations cannot be generalised due to variations in health care provisions as well as practices (Guerzoni & Zuleeg 2011).
Proof demonstrates that psychotropic use in entire population has been increasing tremendously for the past years, however, few studies have investigated that the patterns used to prescribe psychotropic among persons with intellectual disability. Regarding deinstitutionalization, creating warrens of psychotropic use, adverse effects and efforts to minimise its use to individuals with learning disability through the implementation of prescription standards are not clear. Furthermore, with the large as well as representative sample size, it is apparent that there are increased rates of mental illness, challenging behavior and psychotropic medicine among people with intellectual disability.
Research Question
Do challenging behaviors among persons with learning disabilities result from mental impairments?
Are social workers faced with challenges caring for persons with learning disabilities?
Research Objectives
To establish whether or not challenging behaviors among persons with learning disabilities result from mental impairments
To understand some of the challenges that come with caring for persons with learning disabilities
Hypothesis
H0:Challenging behaviors among persons with learning disabilities do not result from mental impairments
H1:Challenging behaviors among persons with learning disabilities do not result from mental impairments
H0:Social workers caring for persons with learning disabilities do not undergo challenges that wear them down
H1:Social workers caring for persons with learning disabilities undergo challenges that wear them down
What is challenging behavior?
An individual’s conduct may be regarded as challenging if it threatens their safety or those around, particularly care or even contributes poor life quality. In addition, such behaviors can influence their capacity to participate in routine activities. Challenging behaviors consist of self-harm, destructiveness and aggression among others. Communication determines the way in which people express their needs.
In the event that communication is problematic, it may extremely discourage individuals leading to challenging behavior. If such behavior contributes to desire results, it may be repeated over and over. Challenging behaviors are common in persons with problems that impact communication and the brain including learning disability, and dementia (Economist Intelligence Unit 2011).
Challenging behavior or behaviors that challenge are culturally anomalous behaviors of frequency or duration that endangers their safety or others. In most cases, an individual must display trends that are a threat to services for a significant timeframe. Seriously challenging behaviors are not transient occurrences. According to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), challenging behavior is a concept that is associated with aggression, stereotype, and agitation or self-harm, withdrawal, and sexual misconduct (NICE 2016).
Additionally, challenging behavior involves persons whose conduct present considerable challenges to services. This comprises of behaviors that are associated with mental health issues. Challenging behaviors are widely used among persons with learning or intellectual disability, in addition to those with autism. Nonetheless, there are other groups that can be regarded to have challenging behaviors such as those with dementia and serious mental issues.
Impact of challenging behavior
Challenging behavior is described as ‘socially unacceptable behavior’, ‘bad behavior’ (Craver 2015). The term also reflects a challenge to those concerned. It indicates that something is not working well, and it needs to be rectified and stopped. Behavior is challenging if it causes harm to another individual, or prevents them from fulfilling certain things in their lives. Challenging behaviors are detrimental to the lives of the affected persons and those around them. Hence, dealing with challenging behaviors requires careful handling in a way that supports the safety and well-being of people and others
Aggression and assault
In a study conducted by 76 social care workers in institutions that provide intellectual disability services, three-quarter of respondents had faced aggression, self-harm, and disruptive behavior. Recent studies of employees working with persons with dementia discovered that roughly three-quarter of workers faced fearful events during their work (Springer et al. 2013). The most common reported cause was physical assault. Among the respondents sampled, a fifth said they had been injured, a quarter experienced fears during interaction, and half of the interviewees stated that they adopted a more personal centered style while others learned to be more vigilant.
This study gives indications of nature and level challenging behavior experienced by staff in care homes for people with dementia. Recent studies of perception of severe behavior and fear of assault showed that the degree of fear was greater when staff was exposed to challenging behavior. Researchers, however, found unclear evidence for the relationship between the quantity of challenging behavior and the level of fear of assault.
Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. 2013. The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 43(3), 629-642.
Old age is associated with different aging problems such as diseases, depression, loneliness, ego-integrity among others. However, leading to a successful old age is a dream of each person, but still, some factors affect older adults’ health. Thus, the primary objective of this report is to evaluate factors that influence health of aged people. The influencers of the health problems in old age will be analyzed to determine the factors that are highly associated. This will lay a foundation on what can be done to improve the life of aged people, increase the longevity and successful life.
A sample of adults aged 50 years and above will be randomly selected, and given the questionnaire to fill. Collected data will be analyzed to determine the correlation of different variables that might be attributed to the health of old aged people. More specific, the participation on leisure, life satisfaction, attending social clubs/events, positivity about their health, among others. The dependent variable is the number of times a person visits the doctors (only when sick). The research will be designed to answer the following question: What are the main factors affecting old age health?
Literature Review
Aging is a process that is inevitable. Aging makes people susceptible to illness and other disabilities. Although this process is inevitable, measures can be taken to reduce the effects of the aging, as well as maintaining good health. This is because most of the old people are prone to risk factors that increase the chances of getting sick. These factors need to be addressed amicably, which will reduce the likelihood of old age problems.
This is in agreement with Risk factors of ill health among older people(2016), health practitioners need to address the following factors adequately to risk factors. First, old people need to be protected from injuries, like falling. Most of the old people become wearisome, making their bodies weak, which increases chances of injuries. Also, they should be protected from noncommunicable diseases, which may cause premature death.
Most of the harmful behavior in early life may cause premature death. Poor nutrition and becoming physically inactive as well as taking alcohol or smoking may contribute to chronic diseases (Strollo et al., 2015). Among other factors that need to be kept in check to avoid old age illness are like; poverty which can be tackled through encouraging social security saving. Avoiding social isolation, or exclusion and ensuring that people at old.
(Han et al., 2015) Stipulates that aging is a psychological, physical, social and wellness of a person in the later age. Just like a chain of reaction, the previous stage of life affect the subsequent in one way or the other. Therefore, people should prepare well in preparation for the next stage of their life. It is imperative to understand how to prepare at early age so that they can prepare for a healthy life in future.
That’s why (Han et al., 2015) carried out research to determine some of the vital factors that are associated with old age illness and disability. Such preparations are critical in ensuring that one has a quality of life, as well as improving other health-related attitudes. In an attempt to improve the quality of life, different scientific research have been conducted, utilizing biological means. Biological research has been done to understand healthy aging.
These investigations aim at finding a combination of factors that optimize opportunities that retain the mental wellness, the excellent transition at old age stage.
Different biological explorations have been conducted to revolutionize the perspective of healthy aging. For instance, molecular, genetic, and cellular factors, which affect the aging processes. This, has revealed different environmental factors, social attributes, behavioral factors, co-existing conditions, among other factors that pose risks to successful aging.
Biologists are aiming at improving and maintaining physical and psychological wellness. Different terms have been used to mean healthy aging, such as successive aging, productive aging, positive aging, and active aging. These terms can be used interchangeably without losing the meaning. Paramedics have done different tasks in identifying cellular and molecular factors that highly influence the aging process; that may fasten the aging pace.
This includes monitoring various stress, immune system, and the science behind the deterioration of cells (commonly referred as senescence). Thus, recent researches have been carried to isolate and identify some additional factors that increase the aging, and more importantly strategies of eluding those effects.
Also, deeper analysis has been conducted to understand how cellular, and molecular structure changes with aging. That is, using therapeutic approach has been used in determining the underlying aspect of what causes the decreasing function of the cells as well as the increased cases of illness among the aged people. Studies have been conducted to ensure that even after aging the physiological processes are maintained. In fact, most studies have pointed that increased number of chronic diseases are associated with the weakening of the molecular and cells in animals and the human body.
As earlier stated, life is a cycle, and people have to pass through different stages to become mature and become of age. Importantly, the researcher can understand whether developmental, early life and prenatal life is associated with the success old age. Consumption of harmful substances can have a detrimental effect on the human body, and when stem cell is affected, it is not good news.
This is because stem cells are responsible for replenishing cells and tissues throughout and organism’s life. Thus, epidemiology has explored, to identify factors that may affect earlier stages of life that may contribute to reduces life longevity. Through these studies, they are able to point out some measures that can be adopted to minimize these factors effect during the old age.
It is with great concern investigations have been performed to determine the underlying association between obesity and metabolic status especially on old age. Most of the chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, insulin signal, thus, studies have assessed the association between these factors and old age. Different studies have been completed on how to maintain quality life, at the same time have a nutritional, and cognitive practices that improve the successive old age.
In this way, it has been pointed that physical exercise is highly associated with overweight, which increases risks of old age. Thus, as people emphasize on eating responsibly, people should have ample time sleeping, taking physical exercise classes, increasing social events attendances. This will act as a method used to mitigate chances of getting cancer, diabetes, digestive diseases, musculoskeletal disorders among the aged people.
Life satisfaction has nowadays been considered as a basic necessity for healthy life. This includes a desire to maintain a good leading life, live a good lifestyle with physical and social participation. That is, successful life is beyond disease free living, rather it extends to the mental wellness of an individual, physical participations, and social wellness.
The state of mind plays a significant role in helping the positive health, which reduces the stress that may maybe a root cause of chronic diseases, depression, and self-pity (Singh, 2015). This has paved the way for significant research to be conducted on different factors attributed to the mental ill-health. The mind is thought to be connected to psychological which impacts on the body making it weak and thus may lead to falling sick.
Thus, the state of mind is associated with disease intervention and prevention on old people (Singh, 2015). Thus, it is important to determine the psychological factors associated with the mental ill-health, which helps in reducing cases of depression, loneliness, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.
In that light, different research has been carried out to examine the how factors such as self-esteem, ego-integrity, leisure participation (as a physical as well as a social activity), loneliness, depression as the leading factors associated with healthy old age. Thus, mitigations need to be adopted to curb these problems. In accordance with (Luo et al., 2012), the mentality of aged people about their health plays a vital role in their wellbeing and at the same time their mortality. Therefore, this needs to be checked to improve the psychological problem the old aged people might be undergoing.
All these factors have a close relationship with old age health, and they play a vital role in the wellbeing of the elderly. However, this paper will exclusively use five factors to determine whether they are associated with the dependent variable. These number of variables makes the paper have a wider scope since most of the study assess one or two independent variables.
Ethical consideration
A number of issues will be considered to protect the participants, where questions will be design to ensure that they will not evoke psychological torment. Also, the participants will be made aware on the importance of the research, and they will be informed that they can discontinue anytime they wish. The information shared will not be disclosed to anyone, and will be treated with great confidentiality.
The data will be enough in answering the research question. Also, hypothesis test will be executed successfully since the data used will be in nominal scale, which will use non-parametric tests like chi-square to infer whether there is any association. This is because the non-parametric tests can also be performed using small sample sizes.
Conclusion
Based on the literature review obtained, there is great need to understand old age health, improve their condition to ensure that they live a successful and longevity life. The variable selected will show the nature of association as well as the magnitude. Also, using simple random sampling technique, sufficient information can be collected to make inference about the influences of the old age. The researcher will make a recommendation on the best practices that can yield productive/healthy old age, which interns if adopted can lead to improving the quality of life the aged people live. In achieving this, the researcher would have met the desired goal of the research.
References
Han, K., Lee, Y., Gu, J., Oh, H., Han, J., & Kim, K. (2015). Psychosocial factors for influencing healthy aging in adults in Korea. Retrieved 9 December 2016, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4367838/
Strollo, S. E., Caserotti, P., Ward, R. E., Glynn, N. W., Goodpaster, B. H., & Strotmeyer, E. S. (2015). A review of the relationship between leg power and selected chronic disease in older adults. The journal of nutrition, health & aging, 19(2), 240-248. From http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12603-014-0528-y
Tchkonia, T., Zhu, Y., Van Deursen, J., Campisi, J., & Kirkland, J. L. (2013). Cellular senescence and the senescent secretory phenotype: therapeutic opportunities. The Journal of clinical investigation, 123(3), 966-972. From http://www.jmir.org/article/view/2439/1
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This chapter shall present a review of the literature on the problems presented in this research. The theory builds a platform of understanding the implication of non-financial rewards within the framework of the total rewards structure. Specifically, the areas that shall be covered in this chapter are theories of motivation, financial rewards, non-financial rewards, and the work environment. This chapter shall begin with theoretical review followed by a conceptual framework, empirical review and research gap.
Theoretical Review
Following Anfara & Mertz (2006), a theoretical framework determines the problem that should be investigated, what specific question should be asking, and data that should be collected to address all questions. Therefore, in this study, it is empirical to include theories Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, Maslow’s theory of needs, social exchange and expectancy theory.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Dr. Fredrick Herzberg, a psychologist, determined to understand the effects of attitude towards motivation, he had set a research by asking questions to selected people about their behavior towards their jobs. On the basis of research’s result, he had developed Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. This theory suggests that motivation is two-dimensional and each dimension has unique factors. Herzberg revealed that each factor is associated with job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
He suggested that when an intrinsic factor or motivator is present, it promotes motivation. In contrast, the latter, if none of the factors are present, hence, employees become frustrated, unsatisfied and reduces motivation, which he referred the act as hygiene. In the simpler note, motivators are identified as achievement, recognition, advancement, personal and professional growth.
Hygiene on the other hand, Herzberg classified the factors salary, benefits, interpersonal relationship with supervisors and colleagues, administrative policies and attitude, working conditions and environment, and security (IFPO, 2007; Stello, 2011; Thompson, 2013). In this research, it is conventional to use the theory as a basis for understanding the factors that considerably affects the employee’s behavior towards their tasks.
Incorporating Herzberg’s theory into this research, it suggests that intrinsic and extrinsic motivators can crucially influence the workforce. Moreover, Herzberg had pointed that the ability of the workforce to achieve the goals are mainly related to job satisfaction (Stello, 2011).
However, in the expansion of the theory, the initial hypothesis concludes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be dependably measured in the same range. It profoundly explains in Herzberg’s main hypothesis, that factors that lead to positive attitude will differ to those factors that lead to negative attitudes. In the second hypothesis, it is mentioned that factors and effects will differ from long-range sequences of events to a short-range sequence (Stello, 2011; Thompson, 2013).
In this case, Herzberg found that a relatively high sequence from a small number of factors can promote positive behavior towards the job. Predominantly, most of the factors where intrinsic motivators and that it steamed longer than extrinsic. Extrinsic motivators showed low sequence events; it is rare when these factors are found in high-frequency events (Bassett‐Jones & Lloyd, 2005; Stello, 2011).
Satisfaction (positive)
Consequently, the given figure shows that salary as a part of the extrinsic factor may show similar frequency in both low and high sequence events. However, salary may be viewed as satisfier if related to a job appreciation and not a factor itself. Therefore, when salary is addressed individually, the context can lead to dissatisfier factor (Bassett‐Jones & Lloyd, 2005; Stello, 2011).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
In-depth understanding what motivates people, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs will support the efficacy of human needs. In this theory, Maslow stated that to achieve certain needs; people are motivated. Thus, when a need is fulfilled, the person’s next step is to achieve another need and so on. It is why, self-actualization priced on the top of his theory (McLeod, 2007; Montana & Charnov, 2008).
The pyramid illustrates how Maslow ranked human needs. This suggests that Self-actualization is believed to impose the higher level of human need. Although Maslow does not intend to imply that human receives complete satisfaction, he believed that when an experiencing human achievement and personal growth, a new set of attitude will be designed to placate its new needs (Montana & Charnov, 2008).
If taking Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation into consideration, the theory somehow parallels to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Understanding the higher level of Maslow’s theory, Herzberg refers them as motivators. Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs also correspond to Herzberg’s motivators idea. Therefore, to meet a specific set of needs, both theories has a profound goal to propitiate human behavior and maintain it.
Social Exchange Theory
Social exchange theory explains a social change and a process of negotiation exchange between parties. George Simmel, a German sociologist, pointed that the significance of “reciprocity” in human being’s everyday life and how human interacts involving forms of exchange (Baker, 2001). In Cropanzano & Mitchell (2005) research, both mentioned that Social Exchange is considered as one of the most influential conceptual patterns in understanding the behavior of a specific workplace.
Thus, an exchange rule must be followed to build a constant relationship and exchanges. In a simpler thought, the assumption of the theory implies that when parties enter and maintain their relationship, a trace of tangible and intangible rewards can be expected (Chew & Gottschalk, 2009).
If highlighted in a workplace environment, a recognition of employee from a positive contributing work attitude simplifies Simmel’s theory. It may include economic exchange relationship (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002), wherein, an economic benefit shall be provided to the employee in exchange for his or her efforts towards achieving work-related goals. In response to the theory, research had been formed to validate its efficiency towards understanding human motivation towards work.
With the available literature resources, results show that a continuity of social exchange theory as a part of the work-based evidence, employ a positive employee commitment and involvement, empowerment and motivation (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002; Gould-Williams & Davies, 2005).
As highlighted in Haar’s (2006) research, the perception of advantageous rewards or exchange from the workforce results to an increased engagement towards its organization. On the other hand, if the organization failed to provide rewards to the employees, would likely result in a reduction of organizational engagement. In this case, when there are favorable stances within working environment both employees and organization will equally benefit.
However, keeping in mind that employees tend to react in a dissatisfying working condition by negating rightful working attitude such as, being late, absenteeism and planning to quit organization; an antecedent-consequence relationship as mentioned by Crede et al. (2007).
Expectancy Theory
This theory recommends that every individual’s expectations be dependent on its motivation and the ability to perform the given task and receive the desired rewards (Daft, 2005). In simpler form, if a person understood the worth of a certain task, he or she will be motivated to reach the goal, given with skills and knowledge to achieve it (Koontz, O’Donnell, & Weihrich, 2008).
Victor H. Vroom, a psychologist, suggests that motivation is highly predisposed by a continuous interrelated sequence of people’s effort will lead to performance, performance to specific outcomes and these outcomes are to be valued by the individual (Wlodarczyk, 2011). Moreover, in Vroom’s definition of the theory (Mancheno-Smoak, 2008), he mentioned that motivation depends on three system; expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
E -P expectancy this explains when putting effort into a job may result in a high performance or may lead to the desired outcome (Daft, 2005). In this case, when a person works hard, a better result can be expected, and when a person is unresponsive to a particular job or task will lead to a valence of zero (Koontz, O’Donnell, & Weihrich, 2008). P -O expectancy explains if a successful performance can lead to the desired outcome. As an example, when a person is motivated to achieve a job-related award it is believed that the room of expectancy towards high performance can lead to award (Daft, 2005).
On another context, when an individual places importance upon an expected outcome, based on needs, values and goals Vroom identified the strength as valence (Daft, 2005). In this case, if the availability of an outcome extracted from high efforts and good performance; however, are not valued by the employees, the result motivation will end up low. On the other hand, if employees will highly value the outcome, motivation will be higher.
The implications are crucial when influencing employee’s motivation. According to Sims (2002), managers should understand the importance of the theory. It is recognized that expectancy theory, provides powerful explanation towards employee’s motivation. Another example as cited by Koontz, O’Donnell, & Weihrich (2008), when a person is motivated to accomplish some tasks, can be determined by person’s wish to accomplish the task.
Conceptual Framework
This section attempts to determine the implication of non-financial rewards on driving organizational strategy at Communications Authority of Kenya. The non-financial rewards include motivation, financial rewards, non-financial rewards, and the work environment. This study shall determine the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variables.
References
Anfara, V. & Mertz, N. (2006). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research (1st ed., pp. 23- 24).
Aryee, S., Budhwar, P., & Chen, Z. (2002). Trust as a mediator of the relationship between
organizational justice and work outcomes: test of a social exchange model. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 23(3), 267-285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.138
Baker, M. (2001). Families, labour and love (1st ed., p. 78). Crows Nest, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin.
Bassett‐Jones, N. & Lloyd, G. (2005). Does Herzberg’s motivation theory have staying power? Journal Of Management Development, 24(10), 929-943. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621710510627064
Chew, E. & Gottschalk, P. (2009). Information technology strategy and management (1st ed.).
Hershey: Information Science Reference.
Crede, M., Chernyshenko, O., Stark, S., Dalal, R., & Bashshur, M. (2007). Job satisfaction as mediator: An assessment of job satisfaction’s position within the nomological network. Journal Of Occupational And Organizational Psychology, 80(3), 515-538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/096317906×136180
Cropanzano, R. & Mitchell, M. (2005). Social Exchange Theory: An Interdisciplinary Review. Journal Of Management, 31(6), 874-900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279602
Daft, R. (2005). Management (8th ed., p. 532). Fort Worth: Dryden Press.
Gould-Williams, J. & Davies, F. (2005). Using social exchange theory to predict the effects of hrm practice on employee outcomes. Public Management Review, 7(1), 1-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1471903042000339392
Haar, J. (2006). Challenge and hindrance stressors in New Zealand: exploring social exchange theory outcomes. The International Journal Of Human Resource Management, 17(11), 1942-1950. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585190601000147
Ethical consideration in the process of research plays an imperative role in promoting research authenticity. Three of the most common qualitative research ethical dilemmas are discussed below.
Conflict of interest
This dilemma arises when financial or personal considerations threaten to compromise objectivity and professional judgment, thus leading to bias during qualitative research. Conflict of interest may emerge from interpersonal relationships, academic interests, financial partnerships, association with particular organizations, and multiple roles within organization among other incentives that may compromise the researcher’s integrity or respect for policy (Quimby, 2012). Conflict of interest has the potential to imperil the integrity of research and impact on participants’ protection. It may also distract the researcher.
Research with vulnerable and protected populations
This refers to research that involves obtaining information from individuals who are incapable or relatively incapable of safeguarding their own interests. Examples include children, mentally disabled, handicapped, institutionalized, very sick, racial minorities, economically disadvantaged, prisoners and neonates (Henry, 2012). This ethical dilemma is based on the Belmont Report on ‘respect for persons and justice,’ which puts two ethical convictions: that individuals need to be dealt with as autonomous agents, and that individuals with diminished autonomy and who require protection have a right to protection.
Self as subject
This dilemma represents a situation in which the researcher is involved in the research as a subject. This rises ethical concerns over whether the researcher can be objective in analyzing information that directly relates to them or whether they will be biased based on their experiences (Wang, 2016). In the case of self-experimentation, the ethical issues emerging include why the researcher does not want other people to benefit from the research and whether the issue of consent is a matter of concern. This is not directly applicable in my research, given that I am not a subject in the study.
Ethical issues in my study
In my study, ethical issues that may arise include privacy, where the respondents may want to keep their involvement in the study confidential. To counter this, I will ensure confidentiality is promoted throughout the research (Leew, Hox & Dillman, 2012). I will also give respondents an opportunity to choose between conducting the interview at work or in a different setting. The second ethical issue is informed consent. This concerns the willingness of the respondents to be involved in the research. Before the commencement of the research, I will ensure that the respondents have agreed to participate, by way of signing a consent form.
