Internal Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
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Internal Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
Introduction
The results of a research study are significant in the event that they can be considered as accurate and confidently in their interpretation. The element of accuracy and confidence in the interpretation of a research study’s result is subsequently dependent on the validity of the study. Validity in this case infers to the degree in which a research study’s inferences can be articulated from the results of the study. In consideration of this, there are two primary aspects of validity that include the internal and the external validity.
Internal Validity
This can be established as the extent in which the results of a research study are considered as a function of the variables that are manipulated in a systematic way, measured and observed during a study. An example of this can be seen in a researcher determined to establish which of the two instructional approaches are superior in teaching a mathematical concept within a classroom setting (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015).
The researcher would be intrigued to encourage two tutors to use each of the instructional methods and then take a comparison of the mean test scores of each and every class following the use of the instructional method. The validity of this study can be depicted in the tutors efficiency and enthusiasm in using the instructional method, the interest of the class and their preparation. In this case, it is essential to establish that some of the potential threats of internal validity include:
History:
History can be considered as the occurrence of events that are prone to alter the end result or outcome of a research study. In this case, before conducting a research study, it is essential to determine that a previous history is likely to have taken place (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For instance, a study on the effectiveness of a new concept used in teaching a unit on the biology of a nervous system may be overtaken by history since many students may have watched a documentary on this on the television.
Maturation:
The aspect of maturation depicts the changes that are likely to occur on the subjects of a study during the research period. These changes are considered as not part of a study since they are likely to affect studies results (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For example, in a biological growth process, a researcher may be forced to consider the element of weight gain or the increase in an individual’s height that results from lunch or breakfast programs as a change that may occur during a study.
Mitigating the Potential Threats of Internal Validity
In addressing the element of history in internal validity, a research may consider using a control group that is selected within the same population within an experimental group (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This group therefore needs to experience the same history as the experimental group, an aspect that would eliminate the effects of history. On the other hand, the duration of an experiment may be shortened in reducing such effects. On the other hand, the effects of maturation can be compared to those of maturation and can be mitigated through the selection of the same population from as that of an experimental group and the study period may be shortened as well.
External Validity
This refers to the extent in which a studies result can be generalized in a confident way to a larger group that engaged in the study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). In this case, a researcher needs to determine the reasons behind the use of variables that are similar to the aspects that exist within the larger population. Some of the potential threats of an external validity include:
The Selection-treatment Interaction:
This is primarily considered as the possibility of the selected participants characteristics interactions with some elements of the treatment (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may therefore include the participants learning, prior experiences, personality or any other elements that may interact with the effects of the study.
Effects of an Experimentation Arrangement
This primarily infers to the situations in which the participants of a study become aware of their involvement in a study and as a result of this, their performance and response changes from what would have been.
The possible approaches of mitigating threats to external validity include the inclusion of an efficient design by adding treatment or control groups and differential waves of measurement (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). On the other hand, a researcher may also consider the use of statistical analysis
Ethical Issue in Quantitative Research
Ethics can be perceived as the development of a good study conduct with the aim of making moral judgments on the element of good conduct. In quantitative research, one of the ethical issues that need to be given consideration is the acquisition of the participants consent in a study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may influence the design decision of a study since the researchers may have to include efficient methods aimed at attaining the consents of participants in a research study.
Amenability of a Research to Scientific Study Using a Quantitative Approach
In considering this, it is vital to establish that this element enables a researcher to scientifically establish the primary causes of his/her observations with the aim of in providing unambiguous answers to the research studies intent. This element remains essential since without it, the cause of an effect may not be established and isolated.
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Main Issue Post
As established, the primary issues established in this post can be seen in the construction of a social variable that determines the limitations of racial identity with the biological differences that exist among races (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). It is essential to consider that an individual’s experience on different faces may be viewed as systematically different within particular societies based on how these societies take cognizance of the element of racial differences.
An instance of this can be viewed in the manner in which multiple races are socially contracted among the whites in U.S. Numerous immigrant groups that are now classified as Whites that include the Eastern Europeans and the Irish populations were first considered as racially different from other groups that include the North European and Western regions. In this case, racial identities may be viewed as changing as a result of the assimilation of demographic groups that differentiate themselves from other groups as a result of political, economic and social variables.
Response Post
As a researcher, it is credible to take cognizance of the possibilities that result in the social construction and the manner in which such constructions affect the meaning of a studies variable. This is ion consideration of the fact that variables are constructed to have immense influence on studies validity (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This therefore requires a clear and concise definition of each and every variable in a study with the aim of increasing the validity of the study. On the other hand, it is vital to establish the context in which research data is collected and interpreted.
Conclusion
As determined in this study, the element of internal and external validity plays a significant role in a study since they determine the confidentiality and accuracy of a research design.
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Prospectus: The relationship between HR practices and the employee perceived performance in various organizations across the globe
Problem Statement
Outstanding performance among employees plays an imperative role in promoting overall profitability of an organization and can be considered the ultimate HR goal (Mathis, 2011). Preceding studies indicate that employees working where there are effective practices are more likely to perform better than where there are poor practices (Nadarajaha et al, 2012). The general business problem is that HR practices have a fundamental influence on employee perceived performance in organizations across the globe. The specific problem is that a majority of organizations do not place adequate value on developing strategic HR practices to enhance employee performance.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative correlation study is to establish the interrelation between HR practices and employee perceived performance. The study will target HR managers in Colorado, with the aim of providing valuable information regarding HR practices.
The independent variables are organizational HR practices,
a) recruitment practices,
b) compensation and benefits,
c) employee relations,
d) training and development,
e) performance appraisals,
f) employee motivation (recognition, rewards and incentives), and
g) HR systems development.
The dependent variable is employee perceived performance. Social change implications associated with the research include enhanced psychosocial well-being of employees when organizations adopt friendly HR practices and better quality products and services for customers following improved employee performance.
Nature of the study
Grounded on an interpretivist paradigm, qualitative study has the primary role of deriving exploratory perspectives in understanding phenomena, motivations, reasons and opinions of participants, and is mostly used in social research (Tuohy, Stephens and Johnston, 2014). This research takes on a qualitative study approach, with the objective of determining how employees perceive various HR practices and how these affect their overall performance. Quantitative research makes use of inferential statistics in deriving meanings from data collected (Yilmaz, 2013).
For purposes of this research, the quantitative approach is overruled, given the fact that a majority of information to be used for the study cannot be quantified. It is difficult for example to quantify how employee motivation impacts different individuals, given that each person may have different views on what level of incentives can influence their performance. Qualitative research is preferred because the research will rely heavily on employee experiences, understanding and perspectives regarding HR practices.
Qualitative research question
How do organizational HR practices, a) recruitment practices, b) compensation and benefits, c) employee relations, d) training and development, e) performance appraisals, f) employee motivation (recognition, rewards and incentives), and g) HR systems development, and employee perceived performance in organizations across the globe?
Hypothesis
Nul hypothesis (H0): There is no statistically significant relationship between organizational HR practices, a) recruitment practices, b) compensation and benefits, c) employee relations, d) training and development, e) performance appraisals, f) employee motivation (recognition, rewards and incentives), and g) HR systems development, and employee perceived performance in organizations across the globe.
Alternative hypothesis (H1): There exists a statistically significant relationship between organizational HR practices, a) recruitment practices, b) compensation and benefits, c) employee relations, d) training and development, e) performance appraisals, f) employee motivation (recognition, rewards and incentives), and g) HR systems development, and employee perceived performance in organizations across the globe.
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Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The Herzberg theory (1966) is proposed as the primary element of employee satisfaction and performance. This theory postulates that employees’ satisfaction is based on two factors namely: hygiene factors and motivational factors. Hygiene factors refer to the maintenance factors, which do not necessarily induce motivation, while motivational factors (satisfiers) are known to influence performance (Mathis, 2011).
It is notable that the organization’s policy and administration, which also involves HR is classified as a hygiene factor; while a majority of the satisfiers are a role of the HR. Therefore, better HR practices are likely to result in greater motivation and better performance among employees.
Based on previous studies, it is notable that HR Practices influence the performance of employees to a great extent.
Significance of the study
Contemporary organizations are faced with the new epitome of the need to uphold effective HR practices for exceptional organizational performance. Furthermore, HR has become an important contributor to organizational strategy. In this relation, HR must continuously identify best practices that will enhance performance among employees in order to promote the overall organization’s performance. This research is of great significance to HR managers across the globe as it promises to provide valuable information about HR practices and how they affect performance. By following recommendations from this research, which will be based on real-life experiences, HR managers can improve their HR practices to enhance employee performance.
References
Mathis, R. L., & Jackson, J. H. (2011). Human Resource Management: Essential Perspectives. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Mudor, H. & Tooksoon, P. (2011). Conceptual framework on the relationship between human resource management practices, job satisfaction, and turnover. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 2 (2), 41-49. Retrieved from ifrnd.org/Research%20Papers/J2(2)1.pdf
Nadarajah, S. et al. (2012). The Relationship of HR Practices and Job Performance of Academicians towards Career Development in Malaysian Private Higher Institutions. International Conference on Asia Pacific Business Innovation and Technology Management, 57, 102-118 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042812046253
Tuohy, R., Stephens, C., & Johnston, D. (2014). Qualitative research can improve understandings about disaster preparedness for independent older adults in the community. Disaster Prevention & Management, 23(3), 296-308. doi:10.1108/DPM-01-2013-0006
Yilmaz, K. (2013). Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Traditions: epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European Journal Of Education, 48(2), 311-325. Retrieved from eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=1fd643c1-2944-4ace-aac5-f239a444e69b%40sessionmgr4003&vid=1&hid=4105
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A purpose statement is a segment of the introductory portion of a study that summarizes the research’s role and hints on what the research is about and how it achieved the purpose. The purpose statement of the research calls for the introduction of measures to curb gun violence and implement intervention programs where necessary to control gun violence.
The statement includes all the signaling words the research is about, that is, gun violence, gangs and the youth. The statement is clear that the research is qualitative due to the mention of a small sample and qualitative research techniques such as Poisson and logistic regression. The statement is framed in a manner that is consistent with the purpose of the research as it demonstrates intend to achieve a positive hypothesis on the dependent variables. The statement also indicates the following;
Intent
The research intends to expose the influence of gangs and gun violence in various neighborhoods in various parts of the United States on the inception of young boys and girls into gangs. This is so as to encourage invention measures to end gun crime in America, which is currently a major concern.
Participants and Research site
There are a hundred and sixty four participants in the research. However, the purpose statement is not very clear about the sampling techniques used and the ratios between the respondent categories. The statement also mentions the research site to be in middle schools in South East Lost Angeles, California.
Variables used
The use of the sample data in the research as well the regression models provides a pre-emptive analysis of the cases in Los Angeles. The distribution of the sample is ample to provide a proper representation of the entire scope of research. However, the use of a sample of predominantly Hispanic boys and girls is imminently circumstantial. This presents a significant challenge to the research since communities in Black, Native American and Asian-American communities may present different findings.
Theory Identified
The research demonstrates the confirmation of the Social Cognitive theory by Holt and Chapman. The theory can be summarized as follows ‘portions of a person’s knowledge can be acquired by directly observing the actions of other people and learning from them.’ Communal issues such as neighborhood gang presence, gun presence and cases of gang violence often affect the psychological response of children to gang violence (Decker, van Gemert & Pyrooz, 2009). In some cases, the perception of these issues can discourage these children from aggressive practices while in other cases; it can encourage them to join gangs where they feel like it is the only way to survive such neighborhoods.
Other factors such as level of education, nature of neighborhoods and existing legislation are important aspects of this research that need to be included as well (Klein, 2007). It is necessary to also ensure that the sample distributes aspects of distribution such as age groups, family income and cognitive factors in the children. These issues present a clearer picture in researches (Wolverton, 2009).
Data collection techniques
The interviews were used for qualitative data while the questionnaires presented a survey sample for the quantitative data.
Conclusion
The purpose statement of the research by Forster, Grigsby, Unger & Sussman (2015) demonstrates that mixed methods are used in the research. The statement presents an aspect of quantitative analysis in the number of households with cases of violence as well as views from different households; all Hispanic. Research on impact analysis and correlative data needs to be very accurate and particular.
However, there should be quantifiable and qualified data for use in research that seeks to encourage policy changes and the adoption of new measures to change an endemic issue (Grantham, 2009). The research by Forster, Grigsby, Unger & Sussman (2015) does present relevant information on gang violence. However, this data is not sufficient to encourage policy change.
References
Decker, S. H., van Gemert, F., & Pyrooz, D. C. (2009). Gangs, migration, and crime: The changing landscape in europe and the USA. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 10(4), 393-408.
Forster, M., Grigsby, T. J., Unger, J. B., & Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of Criminology, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.11
Politics of respectability or respectability politics refers to attempts by members of marginalised communities to police their own members and at the same time show that certain aspects of their life, especially the social ones are compatible and continuous with the other mainstream values. Respectability politics takes its root in shaping marginalised communities instead of challenging the mainstream groups for it numerous failures and accepting the difference between the parties (Harris, 2012).
The black community stands out as one of the marginalised communities in the United States and more likely feels the effects of respectability politics. On the other hand inter-sectionality refers to individuals face multiple threats of discrimination based on several different grounds (Smith, 2014). Politics of respectability is practised as a way of attempting to undermine the moral and cultural practices of a given ethnic group President Obama clearly stands out as one of the parties criticised for continuously using respectability politics throughout the entire period as president of the United States (Harris, 2012).
This paper largely focuses on respectability of the society using the black community as an example Intersectionality and politics of respectability are two concepts that address the plight of minority communities and make them equal to other societal members if used in the right manner.
Politics of Respectability and Intersectionability
According to Harris (2014), respectability of politics has become one of the fundamental methods that is used to address the ills of the society. It was founded by members of the society to act as a guide. Harris (2014) illustrates and identifies the specific parties that formulated or coined the term respectability politics among the black community. The black elite came up with the term to guide the social actions of members of their society. However some parties go against the set of procedures and become aggrieved once they are chased out of the school setting.
A good example is in the case of the young girl who was sent away from school for allegedly going against the set rules (Harris, 2012). The young girl named Tiana Parker came to school with deadlocks something that was not allowed in the school setting (Harris, 2012). The black elite community set the rules to upgrade their community but such teachings were advocated by most members of the society. They never saw the benefits of such rules in their lives.
Intersectionability seeks to understand why the black community is opposed to such rules that were meant to improve their lives. It holds that the classical cases of oppression within a society never act alone. Rather they act together while being interlinked to one another. For example. In most cases, racism would occur with other ills in the society. Some of these other ills would be bigotry, xenophobia, classism and sexism (Harris, 2014). All of these aspects are interlinked in one way or another.
The public outcry witnesses in the case of Tiana Parker did not seek to understand the current problem at hand which is violation of the school rules (Harris, 2012). The society felt that since white children are able to go to school having different types of hair styles and they are never expelled the same rules should be applied to children coming from the white community (Smith, 2014). This in essence shows the type of society that the above parties live in.
Intersectionability has been used to weaken the position of politics of respectability A good example is provided in the case of the Republican party in the United States which has always been opposed to any changes to alleviate the social and economic position of the black community. Most of the Supreme Court cases in the United States have gone against issues such as affirmative action in the process hindering the change that is much desired in the society (White, 2010).
The Republican Party has also gone forth to vote against the Obama’s accomplishment such as the Affordable Care Act that ensures that there is equality in the health standards among all individuals in the society (Harris, 2014). All individuals against politics of respectability are sometimes directly linked to being individuals who promote tendencies outlined in intersectionability. Sometimes President Obama has been against issues involving politics respectability (White, 2010).
On some occasions the president has been equally quiet on issues affecting the black community and as a result the people from this ethnic group have not felt as if their issue are being addressed by the current president (Smith, 2014). More focus has been provided in addressing issues that deal with the whole society. At the end of the day, solving societal issues without addressing issues such as racism and ethnicity does not assist the nation as a whole. Instead, it tears into the national fabric that makes the same nation (Harris, 2014).
Neglecting politics of respectability fails to address important problems that face the society. Such problems include the economic position of the working class of the black people. President Obama has also been on the trail stating that the black people are solely responsible for some of the misfortunes that have affected them and their societies. More importantly the president stated that the black people have stalled their own progress. This has become much more of a custom if not a ritual for the president of the United States (Harris, 2014).
Obama stated that during the fifty years that the black community was in war, some of its members had the wrong objectives. Some of them still complain of police brutality and how they have been neglected by the society. The same problems that they fought for close to fifty years are still being described. When such terms are used or utilised in the society they reduce the pleas of one community or ethnic group as being normal complaint (White, 2010).
However, the truth of the matter is quite different as different individuals from the Black community may be suffering from the said effects (Harris, 2014). The elite class in the black community has attempted to change their thinking but all has not worked. The best approach is to directly influence the black people so that they have people who can look and learn from in the society. Such example are the likes of Michael Johnson whose life serves to change the life of the people from the black community (Harris, 2014). People who have succeeded in life are better placed in assisting the society to attain its goals in the long run.
Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham remains one of the few authors who properly brought out issues facing women in the society through advocating for practices that fall under respectability politics. In the earlier centuries women were rarely treated as equals in the society (Watts, 1994). They were subjected to all form of discrimination in the society by those in charge of all roles. However Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham found a way in which women could be empowered (Smith, 2014).
More specifically, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham utilised the church to bring out issues that faced women between 1880 and 1920 (Watts, 1994). Women were largely engaged as the members of the church their participation ranged from organising for fundraisers to promoting education and development in the society. The church in itself was doing well because of women in the society.
In other words, the women can be stated as the original founder members of the church (White, 2010). Thus most black women never viewed the church as the only place where they could seek religious interventions but also one of the places where they could offer a forum to challenge intersectionability issues such as race, gender and class which tore the society into different fronts (Watts, 1994).
Black women became the centre for attraction for the Baptist church, a role that had been originally designed to belong to the male members of the society. Their involvement in most of the activities of the church and the society were aimed at ensuring that they could help their race instead of waiting for their race to come and help those (Watts, 1994). This was one of the basic fundamental teachings that most people from the black community came to believe.
Soon enough they were divided into small groups that placed more emphasis on the development of the society rather than focusing on individuals (Watts, 1994). A good example of such a group was the famously known Female Talented Group which comprised of educated girls within the society who placed emphasis on the educating members of the society and more so those of the black ethnic community in society who were missing out on education (Smith, 2014).
The women also established convections schools where they articulated all manner of issues such as racism and classism in the society and taught children on how to avoid the current ills noted in the present society (Watts, 1994). The Northern Baptist women were also able to work with the Southern Baptist women in the creation of a new alliance that had never been in existence. The new alliance sought to inspire the society to become better members.
Higginbotham’s work majorly focuses on the many activities different women across the divide put forth in ensuring aspects relating to the society were well advocated for irrespective of their individual ethnic or racial background. This in essence helped most member o f the black community.
Conclusion
Respectability politics is a term coined to show how different members of the society can come together and improve the society regardless of all the stumbling blocks that may appear on their way. It focuses on how the society can become better by improving the status of the marginalised communities. However, not all individuals have the same believes in such system and as a result there is creation of another aspect termed as intersectionability which exists immediately a society fails to recognise the importance of respectability politics
Harris, F. C. (2014). The rise of respectability politics. Dissent, 61(1), 33-37.
Smith, M. (2014). Affect and respectability politics. Theory & Event, 17(3).
Watts, J. (1994). Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920. By Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham.(Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1993. xiv, 306 pp. $34.95, ISBN 0-674-76977-5.). The Journal of American History, 81(1), 295-295.
White, E. F. (2010). Dark continent of our bodies: Black feminism & politics of respectability. Temple University Press.
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Decentralization is a longstanding but still developing concept that is yet to find a coherence definition and measurement model. The lack of mutual definition of decentralization and a measurement model makes it difficult to implement it and monitor the outcomes of the same in countries that have adopted it. This explores the concept of decentralization, with particular interest in Kenya which recently adopted devolution in its new Constitution of 2010.
The first part of the paper deals with the definition of decentralization. While the definition of the decentralization is still an issue, the paper defines it as the transfer of power and resources away from the central government. The concepts in this definition include ‘transfer’ and ‘decentralized system’. The second part of the paper deals with objectives.
The concepts under this subheading include; definition, measurement, and effectiveness. The third subheading is types of decentralization. This is a very important part of the paper as it distinguishes between the various designs and their effectiveness. The concepts under this subheading include; delegation, deconcentration, devolution, fiscal decentralization, political decentralization, and administrative decentralization.
The fifth subheading is on measuring decentralization. Concepts include ‘interrelated’ and ‘confirmatory factor analysis’. The paper has explored literature from various authors on the subject. The definition and types of decentralization are based on theoretical framework, while measurement is based on empirical studies.
Definition of decentralization
Whereas developing governments such as Kenya are shifting to decentralization as a way of promoting service delivery, the definition of decentralization remains an unsettled issue. In essence, there’s no mutual agreement in regards to the definition of decentralization and the manner in which decentralization should be measured. Nevertheless, most scholars refer to decentralization as the transfer of power and resources away from the central government (Schneider, 2003). A decentralized system is one in which a central authority plays a lesser role in one or all these dimensions.
Kenya is an elaborate developing country that recently adopted a devolution policy in its 2010 Constitution. The Constitution provides for fiscal, administrative and political decentralization through the creation of a new layer of county governance. The sweeping policy changes in Kenya have resulted in a new regime of governance comprising of a national government and 47 county governments (Boex & Kelly, 2011).
The 2013 elections marked the official launch of decentralization, which resulted to the election of 47 governors and county assemblies. This system of decentralization has presented both benefits and limitations in governance. The aim of decentralization in Kenya is to promote public participation in governance.
Objectives
This paper looks into decentralization with a keen eye on its definition, types and measurement models. The aim of the paper is to establish the effectiveness of decentralization in developing countries with a close interest on Kenya’s context. This paper demonstrates that decentralization is neither bad nor good when it comes to macroeconomic stability, equity, or efficiency, but rather is outcomes highly depends on institution-specific model (Litvack, Ahmad & Bird, 1998).
Types of decentralization
Care must be observed when defining decentralization since it takes different dimensions and forms. There are varied institutional restructurings encompassed in the term, decentralization, thus highlighting the possibilities of many variants operating simultaneously in a country or even a sector. When establishing different types of decentralization, it is important to distinguish among devolution, delegation and deconcentration (Litvack, Ahmad & Bird, 1998).
Devolution involves the transfer of management, financial and decision-making authority by the central government to quasi-autonomous governance units. Kenya has a devolved government, in which responsibilities for services have been transferred to county governments. County governments have power to make investment decisions and raise their own revenue.
Delegation, on the other hand, refers to a form of decentralization in which public administration functions and decision-making responsibilities are transferred from the central government to local units of government. Although these units are not entirely controlled by the central government, they have an ultimate accountability to it. In this design, the local government acts as an agent of the central government and thus aims at fulfilling the interests of its principal.
The third type of decentralization is deconcentration, which involves the transfer of certain central government responsibilities to regional units. This type does not involve the transfer of authority to local units, implying that there will be minimal limitations or benefits of decentralization to be realized.
Schneider (2003) suggests three core dimensions of decentralization: political, administrative and fiscal decentralization. These dimensions determine the degree to which intergovernmental relationships are devolved, deconcentrated or delegated (Litvack, Ahmad & Bird, 1998). Political decentralization involves the transfer of political functions of governance from the central government to regional governments.
Political decentralization theories deal with aggregation, contestation, participation, articulation, organization, and mobilization of interests. According to Fox and Aranda (1996), a decentralized political system is one in which local political issues and actors enjoy partial independence from the central authority. Administrative decentralization involves the transfer of autonomy from the central government to regional governments.
Public administration theories focusing on decentralization deal with modern bureaucracies. In the Kenyan context, the Constitution provides for devolution, which gives autonomy to the county government to exercise control and power over their territories. There are great hopes that decentralization will impact positively on service delivery, job creation and governance.
However, Kenyan citizens are not in a proper position to participate fully in governance due to difficulties encountered in accessing basic information about project implementation, expenditures, budgets, policies, and local development priorities.
Fiscal decentralization involves the transfer of fiscal impact from central government to regional authorities. Fiscal federalism theories focus on maximization of social welfare, with the ultimate goal of promoting distributive equity, allocative efficiency, and economic stability. Critics of fiscal federalism argue that fiscal decentralization focuses majorly on demand efficiency while ignoring supply efficiency (Prud’homme, 1995).
In addition, fiscal federalism assumes certain hypotheses that are not applicable in developing countries. For instance, whereas fiscal federalism assumes that taxpayers in all jurisdictions express their interests through their votes, this is not what happens in Kenya. Voters in Kenya usually cast their votes in line with their political party, tribal, or personal loyalties.
Measuring decentralization
Efforts towards measurement of decentralization are still in their formative stage (John & Chathukulam, 2003). This is because of the lack of common standards for measuring decentralization and also the little agreement concerning the very meaning of decentralization (Vengroff & Salem, 1992).
Vengroff & Salem (1992) adopted a hypothesis that decentralization leads to quality governance in developing countries. For purposes of providing an empirical ground for a comparative evaluation, the authors established a model based on the commitment, intensity and scope of decentralization in a country. In their comparative assessment, the authors found that decentralization in Tunisia resulted to good governance.
Further studies on measurement of decentralization were done in the early 21st Century by John and Chathukulam (2003) and Schneider (2003). According to Schneider (2003), the three dimensions of decentralization are closely interrelated. Nevertheless, it is not clear as to the extent to which these dimensions are interrelated. This ambiguity may cause confusion when measuring the outcomes of each dimension in a system such as Kenya where all dimensions are applied.
Schneider (2003) proposes a measurement model for decentralization. The author, however, cautions on the shortcoming of this model in regards to the likelihood of one dimension simultaneously picking up elements of the other dimensions. Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized in testing the hypothesis that all the dimensions consist of measurable indicators. Indicators for political decentralization include state and municipal elections.
Indicators for administrative decentralization include transfers and taxation as a percentage of subnational revenues and grants. Indicators for fiscal decentralization include county revenues and expenditures as percentage of national revenues and expenditures respectively.
Conclusion
Effective decentralization can be achieved if there are sufficient resources and powers from the central government, and measures are implemented to enhance accountability of bureaucrats to elected representatives and accountability of representatives to the citizenry (Manor, 1995).
Accordingly, a properly balanced decentralized system can produce such benefits as reduced absenteeism by local government officials, reduced corruption, enhanced two-way information flow between the government and the public, increased public participation in governance, and greater responsiveness (Speer, 2012). On the other hand, decentralization has such limitations as the inability to promote poverty alleviation.
References
Boex, J., & Kelly, R. (2011). Fiscal Decentralization in Kenya: A Small Step or Giant Leap?.
John, M. S., & Chathukulam, J. (2003). Measuring decentralisation: the case of Kerala (India). Public Administration and Development, 23(4), 347-360.
Fox, J. A., & Aranda, J. (1996). Decentralization and rural development in Mexico: community participation in Oaxaca’s Municipal Funds Program. Center for Global, International and Regional Studies.
Litvack, J. I., Ahmad, J., & Bird, R. M. (1998). Rethinking decentralization in developing countries. World Bank Publications.
Manor, J. (1995). Democratic decentralization in Africa and Asia. IDS bulletin, 26(2), 81-88.
Prud’Homme, R. (1995). The dangers of decentralization. The world bank research observer, 10(2), 201-220.
Schneider, A. (2003). Decentralization: conceptualization and measurement. Studies in Comparative International Development, 38(3), 32-56.
Vengroff, R., & Salem, H. B. (1992). Assessing the impact of decentralization on governance: a comparative methodological approach and application to Tunisia. Public administration and development, 12(5), 473-492.
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The autism society of community is based in the state of Los Angeles. It is also referred to as ASLA and it deals with taking care of the autism children living within the larger community of Los Angeles (Koegel et al., 2013). Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (2013) asserts that the autism community has an overall aim of ensuring they have made a major differences in the lives of the people living with the autism conditions.
Furthermore, the families of the children suffering from autism make use of the services being provided by the community. The autism community has also employed a lot of health care professionals who take care of the children suffering from mental challenge.
The autism community was created in the year 1965 (Koegel et al., 2013). It was created when the abnormality condition was not highly known among the community members. It is considered one of the oldest, as well as the largest, in terms of taking grass root measures in Los Angeles. It has over 45 years of expertise in taking care of the autism children (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013).
This is due to the fact that it provides a lot of information concerning people suffering from autism while at the same time carrying out adequate research concerning the issue. The total number of members of ASLA community exceeds 120,000 where the supporters have remained connected in a very functional network system (Koegel et al., 2013). According to Koegel et al. (2013), they are connected in over 150 chapters in the whole of Los Angeles.
Thu, the community has also come up with objectives. First, it aims at raising money, both locally and in outside organizations, in order to cater for the demands made by the people suffering from autism. Secondly, ASLA has also been able to bring together the professionals, the interested individuals, the supporters, and the collaborators of the community in order to take care of the needs and requirements of the children suffering from autism.
Community Partnership of the Autism Society of Los Angeles
And Additional Partnership Deemed Important
The Autism Society of Los Angeles has also formed multifaceted partnerships with several important organizations to strengthen its overall operations. The formation of good partnerships has been one of the key pillars that has bolstered the process of effective delivery of the services.
The autism community group has enabled the formation of a very strong bond between the Autism Society National Society and it. Koegel et al. (2013) avers that the major aim of formation of such a partnership is to ensure there is formation of a strong bond between the organization and other related local organization in other parts of the United States.
Apart from that, it has also been able to form strong partnership with other important stakeholders and figures such as the leaders, parents, and the key professionals (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),2013). ASLA is very much aware that the formation of strong bond between it and the parents of children suffering from autism acts a very important stepping stone in building a strong bond in enhancing the process of services delivery.
The whole process has helped the parents to develop trust and confidence with the operations being carried out by ASLA, thus, acting as an important facilitator in compelling the parents to entrust it with the taking care of their children.
Contrarily, the professionals have also collaborated with the autism community in order to improve the process of service delivery. For instance, the special educationists have been able to access a chance for addressing important issues they would like to see addressed in order to improve the experience autism children gain over the time they spend in ASLA (Becerra et al., 2012).
Moreover, some professionals have also volunteered to offer some of the skills they deem important in trying to improve the lives of the autism children. The local leaders in Los Angeles have also passed beneficial laws that have favored the activities and operations of ASLA. The major aim of passing such laws and amendments is to make sure the children suffering from autism attains optimal support from the government (Hanney et al., 2012).
The leaders have also developed important financial kitties in order to fund important autism programs (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013). Unlike the normal children, those suffering requires special treatment when being educate. As a result, the local authorities have moved in to support ASLA by closing the financial gap for the effective delivery of its services while at the same time meeting its overall objectives.
Nonetheless, the organization can improve its operations by making sure it has formed more partnership with other significant parties. For instance, it should seek forming partnership with significant parties such as the global autism societies (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013).
The move will help incorporate ideas that have far-reaching improvements towards the lives of children suffering from autism. ASLA can also form strong partnership with religious affiliated groups (Becerra et al., 2012). This is due to the fact that such groups are more likely to offer positive contributions towards the lives of the autism children. It can also partner with more charitable organizations in order to expand its educational kitty.
The Cross-Cultural Challenges and the Humanitarian Considerations Enshrined In ASLA
The team of the professional plays a very important role in trying to determine the major decisions made by ASLA during the implementation of the major changes. The pool of professionals have recommended that the autism community should embrace the multicultural system in operating most of its affairs. They understand that the majorities holds different reasons concerning why children suffer from autism.
These may range from mode of vaccination, illnesses, environmental, perennial factors, and the hereditary. Therefore, they have helped to bring all these cross-cultural issues on board in order to come up with a comprehensive system for helping children suffering from the autism condition (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013). The parents have also a very important role especially when it comes to the suggestion of the ways their children should be treated and diagnosed (Becerra et al., 2012).
As such, most of the policies used to govern the operations of ASLA depends on the cultural background regarding the different families that are of interest in the autism community (Becerra et al., 2012). This is due to the fact that the decisions they make are influenced by several cultural factors such as the primary language used, the rituals, the beliefs, the values, the religious backgrounds, and the traditions of the parents.
Despite the incorporation of the cross-cultural set up or issues, there is still scanty availability of information concerning the application of the origin of the autism in children. Thus, there is need for ASLA to listen to the reasons being offered by both parents and the professionals as the main reasons for the occurrence of autism in children.
The move helps to offer an important background for the application of the appropriate remedies during the initiation of intervention procedures (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013). For example, children from different cultural backgrounds may have varying length of delayed embracement of their respective languages (Williams et al., 2013). While the trend may seem to be normal, there is need to incorporate important ideas concerning autism in order to determine how appropriate remedies can be applied.
The proposal for such remedies should be the sole purpose of the professionals and the care takers living within the community. Therefore, they would be able to understand how to apply the appropriate remedies based on the cultural setup of the different communities and religious groups living in Los Angeles.
The Autism Society of Los Angeles and how it makes Use of the Economic Benefits Associated with It
The autism community has a lot of economic benefits it can take advantage of to improve the overall delivery of its services towards the children suffering from the mental challenge. The autism community has put it clear that anybody can feel free to offer any form of financial assistance in its official website pages (Hanney et al., 2012). As a result, the move has helped it register tremendous improvements in terms of the bulging of funds kitty.
As a result, ASLA has managed to buy equipment meant for the facilitation of better education for the children suffering from the autism condition (Williams et al., 2013). Apart from that, the autism community has also welcomed volunteers who are interested in working and uplifting the lives of the children suffering from autism (Ennis-Cole et al., 2013). The volunteers have been at the forefront in trying to make sure the autism children are able to learn how to carry out basic events in life such as cleaning of the environment and rehabilitating the environment (Williams et al., 2013).
The larger Los Angeles community is also allowed to visit and entertain the autism children during the major events or days such as the Family Fun Day and other religious holidays such as the Easter Festive (Ennis-Cole et al., 2013). During such events, the children are encouraged to compete in activities such as the painting, mowing grass, and playing in order to create a strong competitive edge among themselves (Hare, 2012). Therefore, they are able to keep on improving their overall mental capability.
Basic Hindrances the Autism Society of Los Angeles Faces When Trying To Look For the Effective Remedies
There is strong belief that autism, among the children, is a sign of curse in respective families. As a result, the strong cultural beliefs has made the treatment and fully embracement of the children suffering from autism a serious challenge (Laugeson et al., 2015). There has been cases where some parents have declined taking their children to the facility in order to access the special needs sighting issues such as curse (Laugeson et al., 2015).
Thus, it is upon ASLA to come up with more appropriate remedies that can create awareness among the parents of such children to embrace the abnormality just like any other. In fact, it should create more open ways of communication in order to promote open sharing of information regarding autism, where some families considered the issues as a taboo (Hanney et al., 2012). This would help erase the anxiety that might be associated with the autism condition among the children in Los Angeles.
In the long run, the launching of a strong campaign, which promotes a strong awareness about the mental condition will help to erase the frustration that might be associated with the parents seeking help (Hare, 2012). The move will promote the development of an open rapport. Some of the therapeutic procedures, which should be encouraged include the embracement of the Positive Behavior Support and the Discrete Trial Training. These will be very important policies that will help to promote the development of a positive feedback concerning the matter.
Vision of the Autism Society of Los Angeles
ASLA has created its vision it would like to see being achieved in the future. The community aims at promoting and facilitating the autism children towards realizing their full potential especially within the Los Angeles State (Special Education Needs, 2013).The major aim of promoting the positive realization of their full potential is to enable them grow into fully responsible citizen, who are able to think independently and have a positive impact towards the rest of the society just like the normal children.
The Proposed Improvement and the Important Changes the Autism Society of Los Angeles Should Make
The organization will need to come up with more appropriate measures that will seek at discrediting the fact that autism children signals a curse towards the respective families. In fact, this is the only way there will be dislodging of such claims (Sun et al., 2015). The community should also mount string campaign network through the social media trying to promote need for being open enough in about the autism in children (Sun et al., 2015).
Feasible Contributions One Can Make towards the Organization’s Activities
There are different ways that one can participate towards improving service delivery in ASLA community. One can become a volunteer where he/she can take the autism children through important life tasks in order to promote their independent thinking such as encouraging them to embrace graphic designs (Sun et al., 2015).
Moreover, it will also be important in trying to promote the funding process of the organization where one can remain very active in looking for donations. Moreover, regular broadcasting and communication process and important progresses being made by ASLA is also another important opportunity a person can seek at participating in, thus, promoting the creation of more awareness.
Sun, X., Allison, C., Matthews, F. E., Zhang, Z., Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., & Brayne, C. (2015). Exploring the Under-diagnosis and Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Conditions in Beijing. Autism Research, 8(3), 250-260. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aur.1441/pdf
Pain after surgery is distressing to patients and it is an issue of concern for nurses working in PACU. Ineffective pain management during the immediate postoperative period can prolong patients stay in the PACU especially if the necessary measures are not implemented.. Nurses in PACU have a responsibility to continuously assess and give proper pain treatment to the patient (Tedore, 2015).
During my placement, I noted that nurses play an important role in management of pain during the postoperative period. Therefore they should be equipped with the proper skills and knowledge to be able to provide the best pain management. Furthermore, I realized that, despite the availability of guidelines and variety of tools for pain management, post-operative management of pain is still a challenge (Abrahamson, Fox & Doebbeling, 2012).
Moreover, increased knowledge on pharmacological and non-pharmacological pain management results in better patient outcomes. Also, these nurses should be given ample time to be able to follow the pain management guidelines to ensure proper pain management. My report aims at analyzing from the relevant peer reviewed articles on nurses’ role in management of post-operative pain and nursing issues relating to management of pain during postoperative period putting my experience in the unit into consideration.
Literature Review
Tedore, 2015 conducted a research and found out that proper management of post-operative pain benefits patients in a number of ways. Mostly it contributes to better patient comfort which is key, less cardiac complications and reduced risk of development of deep vein thrombosis and finally the patient recovers within a short period of time.
According to Wilding, Manias & McCoy, 2012 research article, it explained that that improper management of pain is majorly contributed by nurses. The factors that contribute to this include poor assessment of pain, reduced knowledge and skills on pain management, fear of side effects associated with pain management, (Wilding et al. 2012).The research conducted by (Wilding et al., 2002) explored the contributing factors to increased pain during discharge of patients from PACU.
Use of pharmacological and non-pharmacologic therapies in pain management is highlighted in an article by Joshi, Schug & Kehlet , 2014.The article outlined that morphine was mainstay for pain management in PACU. It further suggests the use of the WHO recommended ladder, starting from mild non opioids including acetaminophen and NSAIDs to strong opioids such as morphine which can be used according to severity of the pain score.
None the less, use of ice packs, distraction by use of music and positioning are some of the non-pharmacological therapies. A study was done in PACU and the findings were that use of non- pharmacological therapies together with analgesics yielded better outcomes in pain management(Joshi, Schug & Kehlet, 2014). However, the outcomes varied depending on the type of surgery performed .
According to Ramnytz, Wells & Fleming 2015, the PACU nurse has a role in assessing the associated side effects of the pharmacological agent administered. Relieving pain is the major goal of postoperative pain management and ensuring that minimal side effects results. Opioids are the mainstay of pain therapy.
However they are associated with unwanted effects such as respiratory depression, hypotension and reduced bowel movement (Ramnytz et al., 2015). In PACU, a pulse oximetry is the best tool that can be used to monitor respiratory depression during administration of opioids. However, the best method of monitoring respiratory depression is through observation of the respiratory pattern and the patient’s level of consciousness.
Methodology
During my placement in the Post Anesthetic Care Unit, I interacted and engaged the nurses in discussions pertaining their role in pain management with observations being the key technique.
Discussions
Postoperative nurses have a responsibility in assessment of pain. They should assess paints level of pain using the most effective tool to have the best outcomes. The 10 pain assessment scale is most preferred tool. However, it is important to incorporate both the subjective and objective information to be in a position to determine the most appropriate therapy for pain.
There should be continued documentation of the progress of the patient so as to determine the effectiveness of the therapy and there will be any alteration. The nurse should as well note the source and severity. In the event there is no relationship between the site and severity of pain, it will warrant investigations to determine if there is any related pathology.
Cultural background as well as anxiety is some of the patient factors determine the management of pain therefore the nurse has a responsibility of assessing them and determine if they have an effect on the patient perception. Therefore, these nurses have a role in establishing these factors.
Reflecting my placement in PACU, I appreciated that the hospital has a protocol for management of pain after surgery. For moderate pain, no opioids drugs were used while for severe pain, strong opioids were utilized. I also appreciated use of non-pharmacological therapies in pain management. Use of both pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies increases efficiency (Ramnytz, Wells & Fleming ,2015). Non pharmacological therapies that were utilized included ice packs, music therapy and in deed they were found to be effective.
Literature suggests use of different pharmacological agent in management of pain. Similarly, during my placement, I identified those agents being utilized. For severe pain , opioids were being used while for moderate and mild pain, agents such as tramadol, diclofenac as well as acetaminophen were used.
Nurses were very vigilant and it encouraged me when they assessed the patients often after administration of these agents as the doses were given continuously until the level of pain subsided. According to WHO, recommends the use of a ladder for drug management, during my clinical placement, it was however not applied.Mariano, Miller & Salinas (2013), advocated for use of weak opioids, and NSAIDs in management of moderate pain. However, this was not practiced during my placement.
It is the nurse’s integral duty to assess the side effects of the analgesic agents. Knowledge on mode of action ,drug interaction as well as unwanted side effects so that they can be in a position to observe any side effect of the agent s and act accordingly. Likewise, I noticed that the nurses were aware of the associated side effects of the analgesic agent and they acted appropriately whenever they noticed any deviation from normal. After administration of morphine, the PACU nurses were keen to observe the respiratory pattern of patients to identify if there was any respiratory depression associated with the use of morphine.
Conclusion
My experience in management of postoperative patients in PACU enlightened me on the role of nurses in management of postoperative pain. I realized that continued provision of PACU nurses with the relevant skills and knowledge will go a long way in better management of pain after. The information I found was relevant for them included variety of pain management tools, factors influencing pain management, different therapies of pain management as well as the side effects associated with pharmacological managements. Finally I would recommend the utilization of the WHO ladder for pain management.
References
Joshi, G., Schug, S., & Kehlet, H. (2014). Procedure-specific pain management and outcome strategies. Best practice & research. Clinical Anaesthesiology, 28(2), 191-201.
Mariano, E., Miller, B., & Salinas, F. (2013). The expanding role of multimodal analgesia in acute perioperative pain management. Advances in Anesthesia, 31(1), 119-136.
Marshak, C., Bertignoli, T., Mulackal, E., Reyes, E., Duran, M., & Rojo, L. et al. (2014). Excellence in PACU pain management: How is our PACU team terforming? Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 29(5), e17.
McLean, G., Martin, D., Cousley, A., & Hoy, L. (2013). Advocacy in pain management: The role of the anaesthetic nurse specialist. British Journal of Anaesthetic and Recovery Nursing, 14(3-4), 43-48.
Ramnytz, L., Wells, V., & Fleming, E. (2015). An Exploration of the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) nurses’ knowledge level of sedation scoring and pain management options. Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 30(4), e44.
Tedore, T., Weinberg, R., Witkin, L., Giambrone, G. P., Faggiani, S. L., & Fleischut, P. M. (2015). Acute Pain Management/Regional Anesthesia. Anesthesiology clinics, 33(4), 739-751.
Wilding, J., Manias, E., & McCoy, D. (2012). Pain assessment and management in patients after abdominal surgery from PACU to the postoperative unit. Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 24(4), 233-240.
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The mining industry in Nigeria is one of great potential. It is however only just developing. Small-scale mining is an integral part of mining in Nigeria, which can contribute to local and foreign exchange earnings as well as by encouraging foreign direct investment and boosting the country’s economy. Small-scale mining is held back by a number of constraints. It is important to identify these in order develop efficient policies and strategies for its growth – which is the key to the overall development of mining in Nigeria.
This paper takes a look at small-scale mining in Nigeria, and then goes on to identify its constraints, before developing policies and strategies for its growth. A conclusion is reached and recommendations including the privatisation of the industry and a crack down on illegal mining, are made.
1. Introduction
Despite the mineral potential Nigeria possesses (proven reserves in 33 types of minerals in over 400 locations1), solid mineral exportation constitutes a mere 1% to its GDP2. This extremely low share is mainly due to Nigeria’s dependence on oil but also largely due to the underdeveloped mining sector, primarily resulting from inadequate and inefficient policies for mineral exploration development.
Over the past decade, the sector has been extensively reviewed, starting with the creation of a Federal Ministry of Solid Minerals Development in 1995. This was structured to offer a viable alternative to petroleum for foreign exchange earning as well as contributing to the country’s overall economic development. Legislation guiding all mining activities in Nigeria was also reviewed giving rise to the Minerals and Mining Decree (MMD) of 1999.
Small-scale mining (SSM) is an important part of the Nigerian mining sector, which has the potential to raise internal revenue in addition to foreign exchange, create employment and encourage foreign direct investment (FDI) via government incentives. Developing Small-scale mining is crucial to the growth of the sector, given that it is easier to break through the economic constraints as a group of small-scale miners, than for one or two small-scale miners to take on the capital and technologically intensive projects on their own. SSM is a vital stepping stone for Nigeria to fully develop this potentially vibrant sector.
However, SSM in Nigeria is severely constrained, with most current small-scale mining practices unguided and unregulated. Policies in place are inadequate, and generally small scale miners are untrained and contribute hugely to environmental degradation, and poor quality operational techniques and the loss of minerals. Most activities have gone undocumented, resulting in loss of minerals and precious stones. This has caused substantial losses in revenue to the country by way of exports, as well as through royalties and taxes.
It will be impossible to consider mining and SSM in Nigeria without putting illegal mining in perspective. Over 95% of mining activities in Nigeria are artisanal and another 95% of these are illegal3 (this includes minerals such as Tourmaline, Cabochon, Limestone, Feldspar, Tantalite, Coal, etc.4). Illegal mining is a major drawback to the sector.
It is pertinent to identify the constraints to SSM in order to determine appropriate policies and strategies for its development, which are vital to the overall growth of the Nigerian mining industry. The object of this paper is to critically assess the constraints to small scale mining in Nigeria and the steps taken so far towards its development. The paper will also consider various policies and strategies for SSM crucial to development in Nigeria. Recommendations will be made as to implementing the policies in the short and long term.
2. To evaluate how WTO impact the crude oil industry
Hypothesis
1. H0 The WTO has no effect on the crude oil industry
2. H1 The WTO has an effect on the crude oil industry
3.1 Research philosophy
In the present study, positivist philosophy is used in order to analyze the collected views. Consequently, this study is based on a comprehensive assessment of past studies relevant to the issue being explored to address the objectives as well as research questions while presenting a valid conclusion. Positivism is basically based on the notion that since is merely the way to learn about truth.
Considering the positivism philosophy, it is important to know that the idea adhere to the concept that factual knowledge can only be gained through the measurements and observations that are trustworthy. The studies based on the positivist philosophy, the role of researcher is mainly focused on the data collection and the interpretation through research findings and the objective approach which are mostly quantifiable and observable.
Moreover , t positivist philosophy has also been preferred in this study because in positivism studies, the researchers is generally independent from the study leading to the minimum or no impact of human interest within the study making it free from researcher biasness. In 2008, Crowther and Lancaster provided that generally the rule which positivist studies adopt is the deductive approach.
Furthermore, positivism philosophy is related to the point that the researcher must focus on the facts (Wilson, 2010). The major principles of the positivism philosophy include the lack of differences in logic of the inquiry across the sciences, aim of research should be explanation and the prediction, research must be empirically observable, and science should only be judged by the logic.
3.2 Research Approach
The objective of this study is investigating the impacts of WTO on crude oil sector, deductive research approach is used in order to implement and organize the study. To maximize understanding, the research will use triangulation. This method involves using different data sources in the investigation in order create better understanding of the phenomenon. Some consider triangulation as the method for collaborating findings and to validate them. It has also been assumed that the weakness of one method can be compensated by the other, which makes sense of using different methods.
Instead of considering triangulation as the validation method, most qualitative researchers use this technique in order to ensure that they have used robust, rich, well developed and comprehensive account. Therefore, this study used questionnaires for quantitative data along with the interviews for qualitative data in order to gather participants’ view and trends regarding the effects of WTO on the crude oil industry.
3.3 Research Design
This study utilized a mixed methods design. This model involves collection, analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data in order to clearly understand the research problem (Creswell & Miller 2002). The rationale for embracing this method is that qualitative or quantitative methods alone do not capture the trends associated with WTO, such as shifts in the activities of crude oil industry. When used in combination, the two approaches effectively complement each other hence facilitating thorough analysis.
3.4 Research strategy
The research strategy is a procedure used to responding to research questions. In this study, research objectives and relevant sources are employed. The research strategy suitable for this study is survey research for collection of quantitative data in which questionnaires are used in order to answer the research questions and interview method for the collection of quantitative data.
3.5 Qualitative and Quantitative Method
This study utilized a mixed methods design. The study embraced qualitative and quantitative approaches to providing a detailed comprehension of effects of WTO on the crude oil sector. In this case, the quantitative approach is used to collect descriptive and numerical data. In addition, the quantitative approach is employed to gather as well as assess, then used statistical programs in interpreting the results (Neuman 2011).
On the other hand, the qualitative approach is used not only to gather but also investigate and interpret information through observing participants. Qualitative and quantitative techniques are considered suitable for this study because they can enhance evaluation by ensuring that the constraints of one data may be balanced by the other. This guarantees enhanced understanding through the incorporation of various ways of perceptive.
The use of quantitative and qualitative methods is also helpful in giving respondents a voice while ensuring that findings are based on their experiences (Creswell 2014). Moreover, these techniques promote scholarly interaction, because such a study enhances breadth as a large amount of data is gathered.
3.6 Methods
3.6.2 Quantitative data collection techniques
To quantitative information, the questionnaires are used. The questionnaires are considered suitable for this study because it enables the research team to collect a large quantity of data within a short time frame and in a cost-effective manner (Bryman 2016). In addition, questionnaire results are not just quick but also easier to analyse. Quantitative data is crucial in this study, in terms of presenting comprehensive recognition of impacts of WTO on the crude oil sector.
In addition, such information is vital when it comes to comprehending the main effects of WTO. Moreover, quantitative data will present useful insights for recognizing association of data (Creswell 2013). Since this study will investigate the impacts of WTO on the crude oil sector, both qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used.
3.6.3 Qualitative data collection technique
In this phase, semi-structured interviews and elicitation materials will be used to collect data which will help explain some of the impacts of WTO, tested in the first phase. Qualitative method is used in the present study because it represents main aspects of data collection and helps in in-depth analysis of quantitative results.
Instruments
The primary instrument that is used in this study is the questionnaire; the questionnaire is designed in a way that it enables the researcher to collect participants’ regarding the problem in hand. The questionnaires focused on the impact of WTO in general and impact of WTO on crude oil industry. Likert scale has been used in order to measure the responses of the participants where 1= Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Undecided, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree.
Online based questionnaire are used and questionnaire were distributed among participants through internet. While the questionnaires are rigid, the researcher left spaces for respondents to give their views or choose from the choices provided. Hence, the questionnaire is designed suitably. In the design of the questionnaire, the research questions and past studies relevant to impacts of WTO on the crude oil sector are highlighted.
The major domains that are covered in the questionnaire include the impact of WTO on the revenue, jobs, and policies working conditions, and developments in the crude oil sector. For obtaining qualitative information, semi structures interviews are conducted, the pattern of semi structured interviews was made carefully and uniform pattern is used for all participants.
Participant Selection
The selection of participant in this study is a purposive sampling. This aims at selecting individuals who have vast knowledge of the crude oil industry. The sampling process is intended at ensuring that important constituencies of the phenomena are represented so that the actual effects can be explored.
The setting of this research will be the crude oil industry in WTO member states. Managers and supervisors of firms operating in the crude oil industry will be asked to facilitate online interview requests. The reason for choosing online interviews is that it is not possible to travel to every country to collect owing to financial constraints.
