Assessing How the Market affects Economic Decisions about Retirement Plans
A number of aspects have emerged in the last ten years regarding the behaviors of employee in making retirement decisions. This dissertation investigates various insights from previous studies about how employees make investment, saving and manage their retirement plans. The purpose of this study understands the behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions and the reaction of the market towards these decisions.
This study aims at assessing behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions and the reaction of the market towards these decisions. Quantitative analysis was used to assess the correlation between dependent as well as independent variables (Christensen, Diebold and Rudebusch, 2011). Understanding behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions is vital when it comes to addressing the research questions of this study.
This study uses empirical approach to report on the findings of different simulation tests performed on the Model Plan in the Model Economy (Diebold, Rudebusch & Aruoba 2006). The Model economy and Model plan are considerably streamlined; nevertheless, they demonstrate the actual behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions. To assess behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions simple model of pension plans is created (Diebold, Rudebusch & Aruoba, 2006).
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The purpose of this study is to assess individual behaviors while making economic decisions and the reaction of the market towards these decisions. The study also highlights on the how workers make decisions to save, manage the retirement investments and how they address their assets in retirement. The study used quantitative technique to assess the gathered information (Perlin, 2007).
Different behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions can be estimated by data. Information associated with behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions can provide a detailed understanding regarding how DC plans are implemented by various nations; decisions workers make about their retirement plans; and if employees are well placed and informed about the plans offered by the employers or the governments
Much as plan-level information is an effective technique to assess the behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions, a number of them are ineffective when it comes to analyzing the effect of how the workers make decisions to save, manage the retirement investments and how they address their assets in retirement (Gai and Vause, 2004). As such, survey data can address these challenges, such that it involves defined contribution plans with or without investment decisions.
This study embraces first wave from HRS, which is a household survey that was initiated in 1992. Moreover, detailed demographic information of the participants, supplementary issues, the spouse’s pension eligibility and benefits from present or previous employer or other sources of pension integrated in the questionnaire. Owing to the fact that survey technique is of elderly population, the sample does not represent pen-age group, particularly, the sample of elderly group and hence assessing this data cannot adequately depict behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions.
Data values with handful plan features will be suitable for empirical research in terms of contribution rates. Again, the study presents econometric effects of investment decisions, however it fails to assess the way in which decision feature will be integrated in the employee budget. Optimization model containing budget set design will be appropriate to investigate the impacts of pension to the next level.
In short the central debate in the paper was the behavior adopted by the individuals while making economic decisions and the reaction of the market towards these decisions, were divergent extensions would emerge. Individuals with DC plans cannot adequately control the exact amount of contribution from their salaries. Lastly, the study offers econometric impact of investment decision, however, it does not examine the decision variable will be a constraint on the budget of the individuals.
References
Ito, Takatoshi, 2002. Is Foreign Exchange Intervention Effective?: The Japanese Experiences in the 1990s. NBER Working Paper No. w8914. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=309603
Jefferson, R. 2011. Rethinking the Risk of Defined Contribution Plans.
Kaminsky, L. R. 1997.”Leading Indicators of Currency Crises,” IMF Working Papers 97/79, International Monetary Fund.
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Preventing Heart Disease in Women by Promoting Awareness through Evidence-Based Practice
In investigating the impact of promotion awareness on preventing heart disease in women, the following PICOT question will be used to guide the research:
In women with cardiovascular diseases (P), does health promotions using evidence-based strategies to achieve optimal health of the heart (I), as compared to women receiving standard cardiovascular care (C) show better improvement in the cardiovascular disease (O) within six months? (T).
Using terms in the PICOT statement was not effective in finding useful studies. Most of the studies found by using such terms addressed broader concepts or did not relate all the ideas that the PICOT question needed to address. Some of them talked about one aspect of cardiovascular diseases alone without giving any hint about women, outcomes or interventions made towards controlling the condition.
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MESH terms such as cardiovascular, women, health promotion and others limited the number of studies that were listed on the databases compared to when those terms were not used. Therefore, this is an implication that the utilization of the MESH terms delimited the search as it filtered out some of the search results that did not have most components of the PICOT question.
Most of the research findings were not relevant to the study. To improve the relevance of the of the materials obtained, I applied limiters such as age, studies, EBP, women, years so as to only have articles that had a direct link to the various components of the Picot statement. The use of limiters was helpful because most of the items obtained in this case gave relevant information about aspects of the study. Reviewing this articles provided adequate information on the association between evidence-based practice in health promotion and improvement of cardiovascular diseases in women.
The study used for the study on preventing heart disease in women the following databases: AHRQ, guidelines.gov, joannabriggslibrary.org, EBCO, PubMed, and Ovid to gather evidence. All of them provided valid pieces of evidence. The study provided level I evidence as most of the articles were systematic reviews of randomized control trials.
Vandvik, P. O., Lincoff, A. M., Gore, J. M., Gutterman, D. D., Sonnenberg, F. A., Alonso-Coello, P., … & Spencer, F. A. (2012). Primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. CHEST Journal, 141(2_suppl), e637S-e668S. Retrieved from https://www.guideline.gov/summaries/summary/35273?.
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Implementation Plan
Obtaining research approval
The approval process will start from the department level. This entails conducting a comprehensive discussion on the project, its idea, its rationale and its economical relevance to the healthcare system and the patient’s outcomes. The support and corrective criticism from the department will be of significant improvement to this capstone project. The Administrative support and approval is particularly important because it influences the changes within the organization (Black et al. 2014).
To start with, key stakeholders will be identified. This includes representative from the staffing pool, patient population, the departmental managers, clinical operations director, research nurse scientist and the Chief nursing officer. This team is important as they will play integral role of evaluating the data collected, evaluation of the proposed strategy in providing additional strategic solutions that may seem feasible.
The research nurse scientist will brief the key stakeholders by outlining the research idea in respect to the negative impact to the healthcare system and to the patient’s safety. The clinical relevance of the proposed solution to the problem will also be discussed. The questions asked will be answered and re-evaluated further in order to obtain the clinical relevance.
It is most likely that the stakeholders will not support the research idea, so I will avoid overwhelming the key stakeholders with ideas and instead, I will let them to participate actively to enable them reach their approval without any coercion or biasness (White et al. 2013).
After obtaining approval from the departmental level, I will consult the IRB to seek permission to carry out the research of human subjects. Seeking approval from the university ethics body is important because they ensure that the investigation content is legal, valid and ethical. This is because before approving the study, the appropriate protocol is followed, consent forms are filled and that ethical issues arising on HIPAA or data security plans are sorted out appropriately (Black et al. 2014).
Description of the healthcare problem
CHF is a chronic disease that affects approximately 5.8 million people in the USA. In addition, a further 670,000 are diagnosed with CHF annually. The large fraction of the people diagnosed with CHF is geriatric population. The average readmission days are within 30 days after hospital discharge. Approximately 25% of the patients diagnosed with CHF are readmitted shortly after they have been discharged from the hospital.
This is because of the patients are ill-prepared when discharged from the hospital, and they end up getting frustrated and confused. The poor education is attributable to the low nursing ratio and inadequate patient-physician interaction period. Despite the guidelines established on the importance patient education to avoid readmissions, the most effective strategy of education is still unknown (Black et al. 2014).
Proposed solution
The traditional classroom training as begun to shift towards a more contemporary appropriate approaches such as integration of skill based and interactive kinds of education. The patient education is increasingly shifting towards these trends whereby there is gradual incorporation of audiovisual and interactive technology based method of education.
The use of mobile and electronic platforms in this generation is paramount in order to improve the patients plans as it helps the healthcare providers to conduct ongoing educational needs that are beyond the inpatient setting through interaction and communication of needs for nurses (White et al. 2013).
The aim the capstone project is to explore if deploying the standardized patient education programs lowers the incidences of exacerbations, emergency visits and re-hospitalization. The proposed solution is the integration of technology to educate patient from the time they have been admitted and after they have been discharged using telemonitoring, telephone coaching and patient follow up assessment. The proposed solution aims to reduce the emergency visits and readmission rates by 80% (Black et al. 2014).
Rationale for proposed solution
Poor education is the leading cause for high rates of admission among the patients diagnosed with CHF. With the increased advancement of technology, there is numerous opportunities which can be used to address and improve the preventive measures. Therefore, using the teach back system to educate the geriatric population on the factors that are associated with exacerbation of CHF is an effective strategy.
This is even better in that the integration of the new electronic tablet based platforms will help train the patient to help them have a smooth transition of care, and to pre-discharge gaps of patient education, thus reduce the readmission rates which are estimated to consume approximately $26 billion annually, and wher $17 billion of it could be prevented. As all research points out, the inadequate patient education is the contributing factor (White et al. 2013).
Literature review
Approximately 20-50% of geriatric patients diagnosed with CHF undergo readmission in 2 weeks -90 days after they have been discharged. Research indicates positive impact of post discharge care in reducing the re-hospitalization rates and in improving patient’s quality of life (Adib-Hajbaghery, Maghaminejad, & Ali, 2013).
There has been a substantial increase on the number of hospital readmissions of patients diagnosed with CHF. There have been a considerable number of state-level variations in the discharge of skilled nursing facilities. However, there is limited information on hospital level variation of SNF rates and its association with increased re-admission rates. Some research studies was conducted by evaluating the data obtained from fee charges of Medicare patients who had a principal diagnosis of CHF indicated that shortage of skilled nurses resulted to an increase in readmission rates ( Chen et al., 2012).
Despite the fact that guidelines on the importance patient education to avoid readmissions have been established, the most effective strategy of education is still unknown. One study conducted to explore if the teach back method of patient education aids in reduction of readmission rates found that teach back method of education reduced readmission rates by 8.4 %. The study concluded that the teach back method is an effective teaching method as it helps the patients retain the information for significantly longer time than patients who had been taught using briefer teaching (White et al. 2013).
Another study conducted by Vedel and colleagues indicated that integration of Transitional care reduced the readmission rates by 8-29%. The paper concluded that high intensive training which involves the combination of telephone coaching, telephone follow up and clinical visits reduced readmission risk effectively. Therefore, it is highly recommended that that the healthcare providers should integrate these interventions in their healthcare facility (Vedel & Khanassov, 2015).
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Implementation logistics
The implementation process involves these 3 main aims including a) establishment of the value of the telephones and iPads mode of delivering education to the geriatric population, b) formulation of the responsibilities and competencies required by the team members for smooth running of activities and c) to develop the procedures and process of device protection, storage, safety and software maintenance. The main aim of implementation process is to ensure that staff competency is maintained high (Sawyer et al., 2016).
The approach of implementing comprehensive transition patient education among the geriatric population will begin from shared governance perspective. I am well aware that despite providing supportive evidence of integrating technology when delivering patient education during and after discharge, implementation of the evidence based change will be faced with challenges such as lack of adequate implementation support and insufficient time.
To address these issues, the research team will use the monthly briefing sessions to establish an environment that supports the implementation of modernized patient education program. This involves taking steps to ensure that the staffs have the tools and adequate tome to incorporate the evidence based practice into the existing work flows (Black et al. 2014).
In this context, the first step , the department based committee leaders from the quality improvement department will identify staff who will engage in “ transition patient education care using telemonitoring and telephone coaching role” champions. These champions will participate in preliminary training session with the research nurse scientist in order to make them gain an understanding on what is expected of them, and their responsibility of developing a cohesive work groups with the other staff members.
These champions selected will lead the other team members through the implementation process using a comprehensive and structured approach that includes communication of the value of the project, staff training on work flow and the approach of integrating change into the organization’s culture (Sawyer et al., 2016).
This kind of involvement is important as it helps the leaders and staff to become supportive throughout the implementation process. The messages staff obtain from the leadership contributes to adoption or rejection of the proposed change. Positive message from the management brings out a culture of adoption which is instrumental in securing the front line nurses perception of the benefits of their involvement during the implementation process (Black et al. 2014).
Resources needed for the implementation
The resources needed for successful implementation of this project is in terms of human resource, monetary resources and the time resources. This projected is expected to take approximately 6 months. During this period, the staff will be educated on the processes as well as the standard procedure for safe care of the electric devices to avoid patient contamination, and on the storage of these devices including the charging instructions and infection control measure. This is to ensure that each of the nurse champions receives comprehensive but simple instructions on the best strategies to educate the patients using the technology and teach-back strategy (Sawyer et al., 2016).
During study evaluation, the data will be collected using survey tests and questionnaires in order to establish a baseline of patient’s knowledge, which will be applied to evaluate the outcome of the intervention. The technologies that will be integrated include laptops, iPads and internet. The data collection will be done by two people. The estimated cost of operations is approximately $ 200,000 (White et al. 2013).
References
Adib-Hajbaghery, M., Maghaminejad, F., & Ali, A. (2013). The Role of Continuous Care in Reducing Readmission for Patients with Heart Failure. J Caring Sci., 2(4), 255-267. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5681/jcs.2013.031
Black, J., Romano, P., Sadeghi, B., Auerbach, A., Ganiats, T., & Greenfield, S. et al. (2014). A remote monitoring and telephone nurse coaching intervention to reduce readmissions among patients with heart failure: study protocol for the Better Effectiveness After Transition – Heart Failure (BEAT-HF) randomized controlled trial. Trials, 15(1), 124. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-15-124
Chen J, Ross JS, Carlson MD, Lin Z, Normand SL, Bernheim SM. et al.(2012). Skilled nursing facility referral and hospital readmission rate after heart failure or myocardial infarction. Am J Med. 125(1):100. e1–9.
Sawyer, T., Nelson, M., McKee, V., Bowers, M., Meggitt, C., & Baxt, S. et al. (2016). Implementing Electronic Tablet-Based Education of Acute Care Patients. Critical Care Nurse, 36(1), 60-70. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4037/ccn2016541
White, M., Garbez, R., Carroll, M., Brinker, E., & Howie-Esquivel, J. (2013). Is “Teach-Back” Associated With Knowledge Retention and Hospital Readmission in Hospitalized Heart Failure Patients?. The Journal Of Cardiovascular Nursing, 28(2), 137-146. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/jcn.0b013e31824987bd
Vedel, I. & Khanassov, V. (2015). Transitional Care for Patients With Congestive Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Annals Of Family Medicine, 13(6), 562-571. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1370/afm.1844
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Professionalism of a Student Doctor
What is professionalism in the context of being a student in a doctor of physical therapist degree program?
A student training to be a doctor of physical therapy should have the professionalism to prepare for the responsibility taking care of patients as a physical therapist in the future. A physical therapist is a health care provider whose professionalism affects the lives of actual patients. Within the field of professionalism, I believe that interpersonal skills, problem solving and behavior responsibility are three key factors in being an effective physical therapist. Having worked in a physical therapy clinic, I can attest to the importance of each of these attributes in ensuring that a person acts with professionalism around patients.
Firstly, interpersonal skills are extremely important to master when working with people. Interpersonal skills form the basis of personal relations between people. Because wellness within the human body is not only due to physical, but also mental health, a physical therapist who can connect with a patient can treat that person more easily. When patients get injured and have trouble moving, their exhausted physical and mental state means that they have to rely on a health care provider.
If the therapist can create a strong relationship with the patient, the patient can more easily open up to the therapist give more details about their life and activities, which can sometimes provide clues as to the reason why that person is in pain to begin with. Awhile back, I was working with a patient who had suffered a mild stroke. He was suffering from pain in his left arm, and from his sullen facial expressions, he seemed to not want to talk. Connecting with him seemed to be a very difficult task, as he did not seem interested in communicating.
Because I knew that he used to be a chef, I focused on using that fact to build up a level of empathy between us. I had previously worked in the restaurant industry as a chef’s assistant, and told him all about the fun I had while in working in the job. With a great smile, he then started telling me about earlier parts of his life and explained why he had a mild stroke. By building a better relationship with him, I was able to notice that he usually leaned on the left side of his body, which caused the pain.
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Secondly, problem solving is another extremely important skill for a therapist to have. Patients are affected by many mental and physical factors. It is a physical therapist’s job to investigate what factors seem to relate to current symptoms and aggravate them more. This process of figuring out what factors affect symptoms is key in diagnosing symptoms, along with healing patients faster by picking out factors that are worsening their health, such as unconscious habits like bad posture and repetitive movements.
If a physical therapist is able to solve a problem, he or she has to have an extremely extensive amount of medical knowledge ultimately figure out what the problem is. While at my university, I learned about medial epicondylitis. I was working with a patients who had a pain on the medial side of her elbow. With a couple special tests of the symptoms, I was able to find out that she had medical epicondylitis. Experiences like these fascinate me, as they show how knowledge and problem solving can offer solutions.
Thirdly, behavior responsibility is extremely important in providing effective treatment to patients. By understanding behavior, it allows a therapist to make informed decisions that allow people to have healthier and more quality lives. By understanding behavior, a physical therapist can also lead patients towards a style of treatment with motivation and encouragement that will then help speed up improvement.
While working with my boss as a physical therapist, he gave me a great lesson in responsibility working with patients and improving care by understanding human behavior. Even though patients asked many questions, he always listened very carefully and patiently before tell them gently what patents should do and should not do for treatments.
Thought talking with him, I realized that listening is often more powerful than speaking. One day, a patient I was working with who had previously received sub-par care in physical therapy, started asking me many questions with a slightly aggressive tone. Although I felt discomfort, I calmed down and listened to him carefully. To the best of my knowledge, I explained to him how all treatments worked and why they were needed with my physical therapist’s permission.
Now, he only comes to the clinic on the days when I work. When patients sometimes bring up misconceptions about physical therapy, a therapist might be able to change their minds by first listening to them and then addressing their concerns, so they can experience the correct concepts within physical therapy. Mastering this skill however, can be accomplished by understanding behavior responsibility.
All types professionalism closely connect to each other. Interpersonal skills allow for good communication and assists in problem solving. Along with behavior responsibility, a physical therapist who understands all three components can truly become an individual who works with professionalism.
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The Impact of Brexit on the UK and the EU’s financial regulation
Introduction
The 1999 EU regulatory initiatives were meant to ensure that there were maximum financial markets activities among member countries. The regulations were also meant to contribute to the removal of existing legal barriers in the financial sector among EU members. The cross-border financial market initiative benefitted the UK and contributed to an increase in trade in the sector. However, Brexit’s move on 23rd June 2016 might have resulted in an end to the many of the financial conveniences that the UK enjoyed (Grant Thorton, 2016).
According to Wellink (2009: 13), and World Bank (2013: 15), regulatory arbitrage is one of the greatest disadvantages that can emerge from an exit of a country from a Union with existing guidelines and policies. According to Wen (2016), there is a possibility of businesses undercutting each other if the current financial market is deregulated. Brexit might contribute to deregulation of the UK’s financial sector, therefore contributing to undercutting of some firms through unscrupulous dealers. Some of the firms that have their headquarters in the region might initiate planning on moving to other regions that they consider favourable; especially those within the European Union coverage.
Institutions in the global financial market will be affected to great lengths as a result of Brexit. Institutions that are directly related to the UK or the European Union might have to “revise” the location of their headquarters or location of their subsidiaries. The adjustments are necessary for the firms to survive in the market. Brexit has a major impact on financial firms because the sector is strictly regulated, and might contribute to challenges especially for UK firms.
Impact and challenge of Brexit on the UK’s financial sector regulation
According to Claessens and Kodres (2014: 78), regulation of the financial sector contributes to securing of firms so that the shareholders’ wealth is maximized. The UK financial institutions will have to meet the requirements of strict regulations which emanate from Brussels. Before Brexit, the UK might have had an upper hand in negotiating for strict financial regulations such as their refusal on the imposition of tax bonuses. However, the EU might want to use them (UK) as an example of the disadvantages that countries are bound to face when they exist the EU.
The regulatory arbitrage for the UK might have complex consequences since some of the financial sector regulations for the UK and EU are different. The UK might have more strict rules in comparison to those that are issued by the EU. The EU might have less stringent rules based on the need to accommodate many different members who have different backgrounds.
The UK has been part of the EU for over forty years, and most of its financial sector laws are based on policies in the EU regulations. Therefore, Brexit could contribute to instability of the UK banking system since most of the financial regulations that have been in use, have not been enshrined in the UK law for the forty years that the country has been a member of the EU. The effects from pass porting will determine the future of the financial sector for the UK. It is not all gloom for the UK’s financial sector after Brexit since the country will attain independence to make its own decisions in the sector.
Any loopholes that might be used by firms for arbitrage purposes should be identified and sealed so as to minimize any chances of illegal activities. Banker bonus cap has been raised as one of the areas that the bank of England and the European Parliament discussed as possibly contributing to financial regulation arbitrage.
There will be immediate need of business continuous amidst the new and old regulations, or lack of clarity in the regulations that should be applied. Existing international financial firms that are located in the UK will have to make decisions on the viability of their current location. If the firms decide on a new location within the EU, they will have to make assessments on the suitability of a location that will contribute to a high level of business.
The short duration of confusion might lead to loss of business for some international firms. Financial firms in the UK will also have to ensure that they follow the MIFD II rules that will be established in 2018. The UK’s economy will be negatively impacted by a move of the financial firms that will want to relocate especially from London. Most of the international firms owned by EU member countries might want to relocate to other capital cities within the EU in order to make maximum gains.
The UK owned financial firms that have been conducting business in the EU will face higher costs and double rules if they will continue trading within the EU (Ashurst, 2016: 4). The low costs and EU financial regulation rules will no longer be accessible to those firms. Companies in the UK will also face stringent measures as required by the European Commission and the UK in the acquisition of partners from the EU.
The regulatory authorities in the UK are likely to increase the sector’s interest rates so as to make up on the deficit from being charged high rates through trade involving the EU. Clients will consider financial firms in the UK as being less stable as compared to those in the EU. Therefore, the clients might ask for higher returns on their investment based on the higher level of risk.
Financial firms will in turn have to invest in projects that have a high return, but take a long duration to give the expected profit on the investment made. The regulation of the financial sector institutions and supervision is largely national, even if the country is a member of a larger body (Omarova, 2010: 665: International Monetary Fund, 2009).
Evaluation of UK and EU’s financial regulation
The EU is quite strict on “bailing out” of companies since it results in the depression of the economy. Funds that could have been injected into projects contributing to the development of the economy, or boosting the economy are put into several companies that might not have a major positive impact on the economy (Heath, 2013: 32). Bailing out of companies by the government might contribute to lowering of ethical standards in companies.
The companies would know that the government would bail them out in the event that they collapsed. UK based financial companies are bound to face strict regulation especially since clients are likely to demand higher returns based on the higher level of risk. The EU is viewed as contributing to stability among its member states, and therefore making transactions that they engage in safer and more likely to give the planned return.
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The consequence arbitrage that has resulted from Brexit is highly influenced by non-financial effects of the initiative. The UK is no longer being considered as a major stakeholder in the making of foreign policies that might be required in times of conflict. Therefore, the UK has less bargaining power if it requires making deals with other countries. It is critical for a country to have a high bargaining power so as to negotiate trade and profitable financial agreements for its institutions (Weil, Fung, Graham, and Fagotta, 2006: 68).
The consequence arbitrage is the exit of major international financial institutions from London to other European Union capital centres. International financial organizations such as banks have already operated in the European Union and in the EU for decades. The move will contribute to the undoing of many years work, since the UK government has made numerous deals to bring the firms into the country (Ashurst, 2016: 4). Governments usually have to spend reasonable resources and adjust their regulations so as to be attractive to investors from foreign organizations.
Many other countries usually compete for the foreign firms. Therefore, countries have to ensure that their package offers are as friendly as possible. Furthermore, a financial Maginot line is necessary to deal with any eventualities that might arise such as collapsing of hedge funds. A hedge fund with a large volume of deposits could collapse and contribute to the collapse of banks in the region. The collapse or discovery of missing funds in a hedge fund could be triggered by sudden national financial moves such as the one triggered by Brexit.
Clearing houses might also contribute to negative consequences in the financial sector. According to Wen (2016: 9), clearing houses deals defaulting by a few traders can contribute to the system’s collapse. The collapse would result from the system’s insolvency. The central banks in different nations oversee the financial systems of those countries. However, there is no institution to oversee the central banks of different countries.
In the event of a collapse of the central banks of the countries involved in Brexit, there would be a collapse of all other financial institutions in involved nations. Financial regulatory organizations are focused on maintaining the regulations in place, especially because of the hefty fines that have been put in place. Therefore, in the event that the central bank was collapsing, it might take time for signs to be recognized by the financial firms that are the major focus of regulation.
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4.0 Conclusion
If it would not make the UK appear inconsistent, I would recommend a return to the European Union. However, since the decision and necessary steps have already been taken, the UK has to make do with its current situation. The UK has to establish clear guidelines in its financial sector since it has mostly used those in the European Union for about forty years. The opportunity should be utilized in coming up with financial sector regulations that will promote growth and have a competitive edge over countries in the European Union.
The regulatory authorities in the UK are likely to increase the sector’s interest rates so as to make up on the deficit from being charged high rates through trade involving the EU. However, the UK will have to come up with clear financial policies so as to mitigate the occurrence of a crisis. In the past, there has been severe and a high level of frequency of financial crisis that have occurred across the globe. The regulation and supervising of firms in the financial sector of a country is largely a national responsibility.
Both regulation and consequence arbitrage results are likely to be experienced by countries in the UK due to its exit from the European Union. There are international banks that have been situated in the UK for a long duration. These firms might have to relocate to other geographical locations in the EU so that they can continue enjoying the same regulations that they are used, especially if their parent firms are located in Europe (Ashurst, 2016: 6).
The geographical move would result in loss of revenue and employment for many UK nationals. Financial firms in the UK would be motivated to move because they would be expected to comply with a double regulation of the financial sector in EU, and that of the UK. Clearing houses could also contribute to a major collapse of the financial sector as a consequence of a failure of payment by a few dealers especially if they trade in high volumes. The solution to the possible loopholes that might occur is strict regulation of the financial sector for both the UK and EU.
Bibliography
Ashurst, 2016, Brexit: potential impact on the UK’s banking industry. Ashurst.
Claessens, S. and Kodres, L. 2014, The Regulatory Responses to the Global Financial Crisis: Some Uncomfortable Questions, IMF Working paper.
Heath, R., 2013, “Why Are the G-20 Data Gaps Initiative and the SDDS Plus Relevant for Financial Stability Analysis?” IMF Working Paper 13/6 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
International Monetary Fund, 2009, “Restarting Securitization Markets: Policy Proposals and Pitfalls,” Chapter 2 in the Global Financial Stability Report (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Omarova, Saule T., 2010, “Rethinking the Future of Self-Regulation in the Financial Industry,” Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 35, (3): 665.
Weil, D., Fung, A., Graham, M., and Fagotta, E. 2006, “The Effectiveness of Regulatory Disclosure Policies,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 155-81.
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Mixed Method Approach Research Designs
Every work involves the use of specific tool or apparatus that enhances the attainment of the desired objectives. Similarly, in research, there are diverse methods that can be applied to collect data and come up with scientific reality or information about the social reality. In some instances, research work will need to apply combined techniques or more than one technique to increase the chances of getting more reliable information.
One of the prominent research techniques is the use of the Mixed Method Research, (MMR). Mixed method approach, also referred to as the multi-methodology, involves the application of both the quantitative and qualitative techniques in a single study. The application of both techniques can either be concurrent or sequential. The mixed method approach is likely to give a wider dimension of approach to research when applied in psychology-based study.
The current paper describes the mixed method research as an integration of both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition, the paper explains the type of questions best explained by the mixed method approach. The paper also elaborates the strength and limitation of mixed method approach. Finally, there is the rationale for and against the utility of mixed methods in psychology.
According to Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004), the mixed method approach can be used to bridge the rift between quantitative and qualitative techniques. Both techniques though viewed as different, may have closer similarities. For example, both techniques aim to gather empirical evidence or data to address the questions posed. Mixed method approach is therefore an integrated approach that erases the limitations posed by the single method and can be used to answer a question posed on the social phenomenon (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
The mixed method approach technique usually uses both quantitative and qualitative techniques in order to create a greater validity that can be derived through the use of varied techniques of data collection. In the mixed method research technique, both the qualitative and quantitative data are collected. Afterwards, the data are mixed together to produce more comprehensive and integrated results regarding the social reality.
The mixed method technique can therefore be viewed as the bringing together of the qualitative and quantitative techniques (Creswell, 2014). Consequently, the mixed method technique can be explained as a convergence of results arising from both the qualitative and the quantitative results. This can be illustrated by the diagram below.
RESULTS
The data collected from both the qualitative and quantitative techniques are then connected together to form integrated research results.
Lastly, the information that is got from the result of carrying out both techniques is then embedded together and used to explain the social phenomenon that was under enquiry.
Any research study usually aims to answer a specific question or identify a gap that has been identified. When applying the mixed method of approach, one question is usually developed and then extended into quantitative and qualitative sub-questions. Once the enquiry has been undertaken, different perspectives of research are got and can therefore be used to explain the social phenomena under the study (Collins & O’cathain, 2009). The questions that are raised and are to be investigated can be answered from a number of perspectives.
In a concurrent mixed study method, both the quantitative and qualitative studies are carried out together and results emanating from the study combined. In a sequential study approach, the qualitative method for instance can be carried out first while the quantitative technique will be used to test a named hypothesis arising from the study so as to enhance generalization of the facts (Burkholder, Cox, & Crawford, 2016).
One of the advantages of using the mixed method approach is that the researcher can be able to use narratives, words and pictures to be able to explain reality or factual data in social phenomena (Creswell, 2014). For instance, Psychological facts can better be understood when a combination of these concepts will be used to aid in the explanation of the social reality.
From another insightful perspective, the researcher has an ample platform that allows him/her to be able to generate and at the same time test any grounded theory (Burkholder, Cox, & Crawford, 2016). Since the researcher will not be confined to particular tenets of the single method of research, he/she can be able to tackle broader and complete varieties of questions.
This allows the researcher to explore fully and comprehensively the case that he/she is studying to come up with conclusive information on what he/she is studying. In the mixed method approach, therefore, there is the concept of complementarily. Additionally, the mixed method allows the researcher to be able to add insightful facts and methods that can be ignored when a single research technique is applied in carrying out research work especially in psychology.
On the other hand, the mixed method can be considered to be more time-consuming and expensive. From another perspective, a lot of researchers may also find it difficult to handle any conflicting ideas or results arising from the study that uses the mixed method research technique. Furthermore, there are some researchers who may hold methodological predilections, which may make them lean on one method at the expense of the other. In such cases, the researcher may fail to understand the mixed methods as a complete integration of both the qualitative and quantitative methods.
Psychology-based researches require intensive implementation of research techniques that come up with viable results that fully explain a specific social phenomenon. For example, when the mixed method is used in finding out psychological concepts in the social world, the researcher is likely to come up with stronger evidence that will be derived from the convergence and collaboration of ideas from both the qualitative and quantitative techniques, applied together.
When both methods have been applied, the researcher can come up with a complete knowledge that can be effective in explaining and informing psychological practices and theories (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2012). From another insightful perspective, when the mixed method approach is used to investigate a psychological concept, overlapping, though diverse ideas about a social phenomenon can be derived.
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When undertaking a psychological study, the mixed method can enhance complimentarily between the quantitative and qualitative techniques. For instance, the results that can be derived from one method can be verified using the other. For example, the qualitative study can be used to come up with a psychological concept in the social world. Quantitative study can afterwards be undertaken to verify the facts through coming up with a hypothesis following the survey undertaken from the qualitative study (Mertens, 2014). Consequently, when qualitative technique is used as a platform to carry out a survey study, quantitative technique can be used to verify the facts.
Contrarily, the mixed method approach can pose difficulties to the researcher especially where he/she will be required to apply two or more approaches concurrently to study a psychological concept on a certain population. The researcher will be required to go an extra mile to understand how to apply both methods and how to mix them appropriately.
In conclusion, a single method used in carrying out research can produce a variety of weaknesses. The mixed method approach can be used to compensate for the weaknesses that can be prevalent in every single technique. For instance, the use of both the qualitative and quantitative techniques yields results that give a comprehensive outlook about the social phenomenon under enquiry.
References
Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., & Crawford, L. M. (2016).The scholar-practitioner’s guide to research design. Baltimore, MD: Laureate Publishing.
Collins, K. & O’cathain, A. (2009). Introduction: Ten points about mixed methods research to be considered by the novice researcher. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3(1), 2-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.5172/mra.455.3.1.2
Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Sage Publications.
Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D. (2012). An applied reference guide to research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage Publications.
Johnson, R. & Onwuegbuzie, A. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189×033007014
Mertens, D. M. (2014). Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage publications.
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Abstract
Forty years after the licensing of an effective vaccine, measles continues to cause severe complications and death in children in the world. The most common complications from measles include pneumonia and encephalitis. Measles also remain a leading cause for blindness in the world. However, there has been some remarkable progress in the global measles program. In the past one decade, annual reports on measles have decreased by 77% that is from 146 per million populations to 33 cases per million people.
This is attributable to the wide coverage of safe and inexpensive vaccine. Nevertheless, there have been many incidences of measles outbreak in developed and developing countries. This is attributable to poor implementation of vaccination programs in developed and developing nations. This results to infection of 40 million people and results in 1 million deaths in the world.
Due to the highly infectious of the disease, a population immunity of 95% is needed in order to disrupt the transmission, but only a small fraction of the population gets vaccinated. In this regards, this paper explores the pathogen, the disease signs and symptoms, its transmission and preventive measures available. The paper will also explore the mechanism of measles vaccination in improving human immunogenicity. Glossary
CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CD8+: cluster of differentiation 8
CD4+: cluster of differentiation 4
CD46: cluster of differentiation 46
CD150: signaling lymphocyte activation molecule
CNS: Central Nervous System
EEG: electroencephalogram
pH: acidity or basicity of a substances
MV: Measles virus
SLAM+: Signaling lymphocytic activation molecule
SSPE: Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis
WHO: World Health Organization
Background
Measles is a viral disease that was first described by Rhazes- a Persian Physician in the 10th century. The incubation period and lifelong immunity after an infection was described by Peter Panum in 1846. The virus was isolated in 1954 in monkey and human kidney tissue by Enders and Peebles. The first measles vaccine was given license in the USA in 1963. Prior to the development if vaccine, the disease was nearly universal in early life stages, but most of the children would develop immune by the time they are 15 years.
Although it is significantly managed in the USA, measles is still one of the major fatal diseases in the world. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the disease causes 40 million infections with 1 million deaths globally in 2013. Measles is clinically manifested with cough, running nose, maculopapular rash, Koplik’s spots, low grade fever, and lymphadenopathy. In some cases, measles could lead to the infection of the respiratory tract or other organs including the skin, Kidney, bladder and viscera (Koehlmoos, Uddin, & Sarma, 2011).
Measles Virus
Measles is caused by a virus. This virus is known as Morbillivirus measles virus. It belongs to the family paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales and the genus Morbillivirus. The virus diameter is120-250 nm, and consists of single stranded RNA. The species is a close relative of canine distemper viruses and rinderpest.
There are two membranes that enclose the virus proteins. The membranes are responsible for the pathogenesis. The F (fusion) protein main role is to cause fusion of the virus to the host, haemolysis, viral infiltration; and Hemagglutinin (H protein) that causes the integration of the measles virus into the host cells. However, recent studies have reported changes in the H glycoprotein of the virus. Measles virus is inactivated by heat, acidic pH, trypsin and ether. Outside its host, the virus has a short life span which is normally less than 2 hours (Walsh, 2011).
The measles virus genome encodes 8 proteins, 6 structural proteins and 2 are responsible for viral entry. These are the Hemagglutin (H) as well as the measles virus fusion (F) protein. These proteins are the components of the viral envelope that together they mediate integration of the virus into the cells in the upper respiratory tract. The H protein targets the cellular receptors of the CD46 and CD150. This protein is is associated with the lifelong immunity that follows after recovery of the infection. This is attributable to the cell-mediated memory that causes the creation of neutralising antibodies that target the H protein of the measles virus (Walsh, 2011).
The measles virus life cycle starts with virus adsorption to host’s cell membranes surface using the H protein. The virus CD46 molecule is the cellular receptor. The virus then enters to the host cells where it uncoats. This is followed with RNA polymerase transcription of the Virus genome into the host mRNA. This is followed by the assembly of helical nucleocapsid occurs before the virus are released by budding. The mRNA synthesis, translation process and replication processes are as shown below (Walsh, 2011);
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Pathogenesis measles virus
The virus transmission is through droplet or airborne route. The nasopharynx is the primary infection site of the virus is the nasopharynx respiratory epithelium. The virus enters through the upper region of the respiratory system but the infection is not localized one specific site. The viral replication takes place in the epithelium of the respiratory system, and the replicated virons moves to lymphatic tissue.
Replication continues again in the lymph nodes and is from the lymphatic system that the virus spreads to the other different organs including the gastrointestinal tract, skin, and kidney. The virus replication takes places in the endothelial cells and epithelial cells of each of the aforementioned system. The virus has broad range of tissue tropism after it has accessed the epithelium (Walsh, 2011).
In each system, the virus replicates and sends it to the new virions which target the new host cells. The primary viremia is 2-3 days. After invasion, the virus replicates takes place in the respiratory epithelium and in lymph nodes as mentioned above. Following this replication, the second viremia takes place which is usually 5-7 days after initiation of the infection, which could lead to the infection of the respiratory tract or other organs including the skin, Kidney, bladder and viscera. The rash in measles and the Koplik’s spots arise from delayed hypersensitivity reaction (Walsh, 2011).
The pathogenicity of the virus takes place through in various distinct stages. The prodrome stage is the first stage. This stage is characterised by non-specific clinical manifestations such as fever, coryza, cough and conjunctivitis. However, addition signs and symptoms can be manifested during this prodrome stage. Small white spots can appear on the mucus membrane around the eye or sometimes along the parotid duct of the mouth. The spots are called the Koplik spots and precede the onset of skin rash. The Koplik spots are considered as diagnostic indicators, but are not present in all infections and also requires experienced healthcare provider to recognise them (Hanvoravongchai et al., 2011).
The onset of skin rash marks the end of prodrome. The rash is distinctive in that it is maculopapular and erythematous. The rash is attributable to immune reaction to endothelium and which occurs due to infiltration of mononuclear cells. The rash starts from the face and outspreads down to the trunk and lower extremities. The rash often lasts 3-4 days and dries up following a similar pattern. When the rash fades away, indicates that the viral clearance has begun. For uncomplicated incidences of measles, full recovery begins as soon as the skin rash begins to disappear (Guerrant, Walker, & Weller, 2006).
The third stage takes many forms and will occur where immunosuppression occurs and results to complications. When the patient is infected with measles virus, it induces immune response that is intense, which makes the host to be immunologically compromised. The reduction in CD4+ T helper cells, incapacitation of clonal activation of cell mediated and humoral immunity and reduction of CD8+ cytotoxic cells follows the viral clearance.
In addition, the antigen presenting capability is reduced due to maturation of then dendritic cells. The immunosuppression greatly affects the aspects of innate and adaptive immunity, and since the immunosuppression can last for sometime, the patient state of viral clearance makes them to become increasingly vulnerable. The immunosuppression can result to increased bacterial and viral infection. The most common type of infections is diarrhoea and pneumonia, which are responsible for increased paediatric mortality and morbidity associated with measles (Hanvoravongchai et al., 2011).
Measles virus has been isolated from the bronchial lymph nodes mononuclear cells and in tonsils in the first few days after infection Other studies have demonstrated massive infection in the lymph node, thymus and spleen. This suggests that it is possible that the virus primary target is the epithelial cells of the respiratory system and normally follow the SLAM + and CD46- independent pathway including the monocytes and lymphocytes.
The rash is occurs when T-cell reacts to the MV-infection in the capillary vessels. This is supported by the fact that the skin rash is absent from children with T-cell immunodeficiency. The mechanism that underlies the severe lymphonepia and immunosuppression is not well understood. However, the massive destruction of SLAM+ cells could cause the immunosuppression (Fields et al. 2013).
Acute measles panencephalitis normally involves the central nervous system (CNS). Transient EEG detects the brain abnormalities in 50% of the patient. It is difficult to isolate the measles virus from the patient’s brain. Therefore, the CNS damage arises from autoimmune reaction. The Subacute measles encephalitis occurs in patients with a history of severe immune disorder.
Therefore, the infections are not accompanied by production of antibodies. In SSPE, the virus gains entry to the CNS during the secondary viraemia. This causes a low grade infection that is persistent. It is not yet established if the lesions are due to immunopathological mechanisms or through viral replication (Walsh, 2011).
The human body immune system has a capacity to fight the measles viruses. The immune systems is carried out by specialized cells, each cell is designed to fight the disease. The microbe’s macrophages recognize the microbes through microbe’s specific antigen. The antigens trigger the lymph nodes to produce lymphocytes that are of two types- the T cells and B cells.
These cells are programmed by exposure to microbe’s antigen. The T cells function as defensive cells and offensive cells. The offensive cells work by attacking using chemotaxis. The defensive cells are the cytotoxic T cells also known as killer cells which usually identify the cells that are harbouring the microbes and release chemicals which destroy infected cells (Walsh, 2011).
The T helper cells help in activation of the T killer cells. The T helper cells works together with the B cells, which help secrete antibodies. The Antibody (Ab) that fights measles is produced and circulates in the blood system. The antibodies produced match the Ag sites for measles viral coat. The Abs then binds to the antigen in a specific matter. The Ab-Ag complexes have two effects.
First, the complex distorts the coat protein by attaching on its receptors. Secondly, the complexes have powerful chemical attractants of the white blood cells, which destroy the virus through phagocytosis. After viral clearance, the B cells and T cells are transformed into memory cells. These then quickly divide further into plasma cells making reserve antibody. In case of re-exposure to the measles virus, the immune system recognizes them and stops the infection. Through immunization, the live attenuated measles virus is injected in a person’s body.
The body responds by forming measles specific Abs through a process that mimics the actual infection of the virus. The viruses introduced are usually weakened and therefore cannot cause a disease, but it leads to formation of Memory cells. Thus, if the vaccinated persons get confronted with the real virus in the future, the body already have adequate quantity of anti-measles Abs, thus no infection results (Walsh, 2011).
Summary of an article
Eden and colleagues investigated the impact of novel microneedle measles vaccine in primates. The study hypothesised that use of microneedle patch will improve vaccination rates. The microneedle patches is a dry formulation of vaccines, which occurs in solid needles which dissolves upon application of the patch of microneedle puncture into the primate’s skin. The advantages of these patches are that they provide the opportunity of minimally-trained person to give the vaccination as there are no requirements for reconstitution. In addition, no single-dose presentation and avoids use of sharp waste, facilitates mass vaccination (Edens et al., 2015).
The microneedle vaccination systems are effective in delivering of vaccines. They have been effectively used in cotton rats, where the findings indicated that equal neutralizing antibody titers as those in cotton rats that had vaccination in subcutaneous injection. However, in this article, the animal model used is the rhesus macaques.
In this study, one group received live attenuated vaccine using microneedle patch and the other group using the subcutaneous injection. The serum samples collected were tested for presence antibodies, and the presence of IgM in day 14 after vaccination. The presence of IgM by day 14 is an indicator that the animal had generated immune response following immunization (Edens et al., 2015).
As shown in the Fig 1. , the neutralizing antibodies were detected at day 21 after vaccination, which accelerated and peek on day 28 in both groups. There was no statistical difference on the peak of titers and times to peak between the two groups. In subcutaneous injection and microneedle patch, the animals reached a titer higher than 120mlU/mL- which is normally considered as protective level in humans (Edens et al., 2015).
On matters concerning safety of microneedle patch vaccine, no side effects were observed. However, upon the removal of the patch, faint erythema was observed but there was no evidence of wound infection or bleeding. The faint puncture disappeared 2-3 days post vaccination and no swelling or discharge was observed. In addition, no reactogenicity or discomfort was observed.
This technique should be used in clinical practice as thermostability of the microneedle patches is considerably better as compared to the currently measles vaccine that are formulated and refrigerated during transport. Most of the vaccines denatures due to cold-chain failures (Edens et al., 2015).
Environmental factors that contribute to the re-emergence of measles and its impact in the society
The measles outbreaks have been hopscotching across the USA. It has not yet been confirmed on what exactly triggered the Disney linked measles outbreak, but the CDC officials have associated it with the overseas tourists who visit Disneyland Park. This is supported by the findings of genetic finger prints which was identical to B3 measles virus that had caused the massive measles outbreak in the Philippines. With the low vaccine coverage rate, the disease spread rapidly across the states. Medical professionals were quick to point to possibilities of anti-vaccine movement (Edens et al., 2015).
Research points out other contributing factors from public health measures such as lack of access to quality health care. For instance, surveys indicate that only 50% of pre-school aged children have been vaccinated against measles. Disparities in vaccination are observed in African American and Hispanic community. The vaccines for children program is for uninsured and medical eligible children.
The vaccine is give at no additional cost. However, still not every child gets immunized (Walsh, 2011). This is because some parents rejects vaccinations and another fraction may delay the child from getting immunization. This trend has increased in the recent past, which has resulted in unvaccinated communities. This poses a public health risk and barriers in achieving significant benchmarks for immunization coverage.
There are increased concerns that measles outbreaks have been reoccurring in areas that are least expected and in some cases in persons who have received vaccines in the past. This raises concerns on whether there is vaccine dilemma, or if the current vaccine must be insufficient and lacks adequate protective levels that will ensure that will enhance the circulation of measles specific neutralizing antibodies (Poland & Jacobson, 2012).
Measles have severe impact to the society. For instance, high measles fatality ratios have been reported in both developed and developing countries. In the developed countries, less than one in 1000 children diagnosed with measles dies. In developed country, measles is the leading cause of mortality in refugee camps. The risk of death depends on patient’s age, vitamin A deficiency, and malnutrition.
Most of the mortality is attributable to a number of measles complications such as encephalitis and pneumonia. The economic cost of the disease cannot be overlooked. CDC estimates that approximately $ 4,091-$ 10, 228 is used to contain each case of measles per day. The additional economic costs include the weighty costs of work absenteeism and children missing schools. These estimates indicates that the outbreak have a hefty price tag (Benjamin, 2014).
The resurgence of measles and most infectious disease globally reflects a quick fix mentality. There is poor development planning in infectious disease endemic regions, lack of institutional inertia and political determination. The re-emergence of infectious disease is inevitable because of high environmental and developmental change which results in increased population growth. There is much that can be done to reverse the current trend.
However, this will require meshing the economic and social developmental programmes with the natural resource and environmental programmes in order to establish strategic interventions that will reinvigorated the virus ecology and advancement of scientific measures. This will facilitate the strengthening of applied and basic research on the interaction of a pathogen, host and environment; which in turn will result in the development of vaccines, diagnostic procedures and new therapies required to detect and control the disease (Benjamin, 2014).
References
Benjamin Johns, D. (2014). Measles Eradication versus Measles Control: An Economic Analysis. J Vaccines Vaccin, 05(06). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7560.s3-002
Edens, C., Collins, M., Goodson, J., Rota, P., & Prausnitz, M. (2015). A microneedle patch containing measles vaccine is immunogenic in non-human primates. Vaccine, 33(37), 4712-4718. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.02.074
Fields, R., Dabbagh, A., Jain, M., & Sagar, K. (2013). Moving forward with strengthening routine immunization delivery as part of measles and rubella elimination activities. Vaccine, 31, B115-B121. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.11.094
Guerrant, R., Walker, D., & Weller, P. (2006). Tropical infectious diseases. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone.
Hanvoravongchai, P., Mounier-Jack, S., Oliveira Cruz, V., Balabanova, D., Biellik, R., & Kitaw, Y. et al. (2011). Impact of Measles Elimination Activities on Immunization Services and Health Systems: Findings From Six Countries. Journal Of Infectious Diseases, 204(Supplement 1), S82-S89. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir091
Koehlmoos, T., Uddin, J., & Sarma, H. (2011). Impact of Measles Eradication Activities on Routine Immunization Services and Health Systems in Bangladesh. Journal Of Infectious Diseases, 204(Supplement 1), S90-S97. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir086
Poland, G. & Jacobson, R. (2012). The re-emergence of measles in developed countries: Time to develop the next-generation measles vaccines?. Vaccine, 30(2), 103-104. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.085
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Mystery Boxes
Introduction
Mystery boxes are used as an analogy for science where scientists manipulate sealed boxes and attempt to determine inner contents. The boxes are used to illustrate how scientific knowledge is fundamentally uncertain (Matthews, 2006). The essay in the form of a data chart, illustrates how two individuals, a scientist and a partner, observed a sealed mystery box and came up with the assumptive conclusion as to what the inner structures are.
Data Chart
SCIENTIST
Observation
1. When lifted, the box is relatively light suggesting the object is not dense. 2. When the box is tilted, objects move with ease from one corner to another. This precludes the objects are not arranged in a fixed manner. 3. Upon shaking the box, objects produced a discreet clanking sound which suggests it is a small metal object.
Conclusion
From the above observations, I came to the conclusion the objects are metallic most likely small nuts judging from the ease of movement and the sound made when they are struck against each other.
PARTNER
Observation
1. From initial observation of the box, small and compact, assumption is that the objects inside must be relatively small. 2. On lifting the box, observation is that it is light and almost weightless. This affirms the latter presumption that the object is small. 3. Upon tilting and shaking the box, objects hit against each other producing a distinct sound akin to small marbles.
Conclusion
From the above observations, I came to the conclusion that the objects in the mystery box are most likely marbles. Particularly, this is with regard to the light weight, how the item moves and distinct sound made when moved.
After analyzing both observations tabled, conclusion arrived at is that the objects in the mystery box are small and metal like, most likely to be either a nut or a marble.
External Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
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External Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
Introduction
The results of a research study are significant in the event that they can be considered as accurate and confidently in their interpretation. The element of accuracy and confidence in the interpretation of a research study’s result is subsequently dependent on the validity of the study. Validity in this case infers to the degree in which a research study’s inferences can be articulated from the results of the study. In consideration of this, there are two primary aspects of validity that include the internal and the external validity.
Internal Validity
This can be established as the extent in which the results of a research study are considered as a function of the variables that are manipulated in a systematic way, measured and observed during a study. An example of this can be seen in a researcher determined to establish which of the two instructional approaches are superior in teaching a mathematical concept within a classroom setting (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015).
The researcher would be intrigued to encourage two tutors to use each of the instructional methods and then take a comparison of the mean test scores of each and every class following the use of the instructional method. The validity of this study can be depicted in the tutors efficiency and enthusiasm in using the instructional method, the interest of the class and their preparation. In this case, it is essential to establish that some of the potential threats of internal validity include:
History:
History can be considered as the occurrence of events that are prone to alter the end result or outcome of a research study. In this case, before conducting a research study, it is essential to determine that a previous history is likely to have taken place (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For instance, a study on the effectiveness of a new concept used in teaching a unit on the biology of a nervous system may be overtaken by history since many students may have watched a documentary on this on the television.
Maturation:
The aspect of maturation depicts the changes that are likely to occur on the subjects of a study during the research period. These changes are considered as not part of a study since they are likely to affect studies results (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For example, in a biological growth process, a researcher may be forced to consider the element of weight gain or the increase in an individual’s height that results from lunch or breakfast programs as a change that may occur during a study.
Mitigating the Potential Threats of Internal Validity
In addressing the element of history in internal validity, a research may consider using a control group that is selected within the same population within an experimental group (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This group therefore needs to experience the same history as the experimental group, an aspect that would eliminate the effects of history. On the other hand, the duration of an experiment may be shortened in reducing such effects. On the other hand, the effects of maturation can be compared to those of maturation and can be mitigated through the selection of the same population from as that of an experimental group and the study period may be shortened as well.
External Validity
This refers to the extent in which a studies result can be generalized in a confident way to a larger group that engaged in the study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). In this case, a researcher needs to determine the reasons behind the use of variables that are similar to the aspects that exist within the larger population. Some of the potential threats of an external validity include:
The Selection-treatment Interaction:
This is primarily considered as the possibility of the selected participants characteristics interactions with some elements of the treatment (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may therefore include the participants learning, prior experiences, personality or any other elements that may interact with the effects of the study.
Effects of an Experimentation Arrangement
This primarily infers to the situations in which the participants of a study become aware of their involvement in a study and as a result of this, their performance and response changes from what would have been.
The possible approaches of mitigating threats to external validity include the inclusion of an efficient design by adding treatment or control groups and differential waves of measurement (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). On the other hand, a researcher may also consider the use of statistical analysis
Ethical Issue in Quantitative Research
Ethics can be perceived as the development of a good study conduct with the aim of making moral judgments on the element of good conduct. In quantitative research, one of the ethical issues that need to be given consideration is the acquisition of the participants consent in a study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may influence the design decision of a study since the researchers may have to include efficient methods aimed at attaining the consents of participants in a research study.
Amenability of a Research to Scientific Study Using a Quantitative Approach
In considering this, it is vital to establish that this element enables a researcher to scientifically establish the primary causes of his/her observations with the aim of in providing unambiguous answers to the research studies intent. This element remains essential since without it, the cause of an effect may not be established and isolated.
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Main Issue Post
As established, the primary issues established in this post can be seen in the construction of a social variable that determines the limitations of racial identity with the biological differences that exist among races (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). It is essential to consider that an individual’s experience on different faces may be viewed as systematically different within particular societies based on how these societies take cognizance of the element of racial differences.
An instance of this can be viewed in the manner in which multiple races are socially contracted among the whites in U.S. Numerous immigrant groups that are now classified as Whites that include the Eastern Europeans and the Irish populations were first considered as racially different from other groups that include the North European and Western regions. In this case, racial identities may be viewed as changing as a result of the assimilation of demographic groups that differentiate themselves from other groups as a result of political, economic and social variables.
Response Post
As a researcher, it is credible to take cognizance of the possibilities that result in the social construction and the manner in which such constructions affect the meaning of a studies variable. This is ion consideration of the fact that variables are constructed to have immense influence on studies validity (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This therefore requires a clear and concise definition of each and every variable in a study with the aim of increasing the validity of the study. On the other hand, it is vital to establish the context in which research data is collected and interpreted.
Conclusion
As determined in this study, the element of internal and external validity plays a significant role in a study since they determine the confidentiality and accuracy of a research design.
