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Pathophysiology and Leadership
Introduction
In clinical practice, medical promptness is an essential element of any given organization. The use of methods that integrate cohesiveness, principles, promptness and good communication presents room for inclusive clinical practice. Also, leaders have the power of using different headship skills to help clinicians work synchronously within the organization. Leaders are also the main people in charge of supervising with the ability as well as skills for clinicians when required.
Again, leaders create their capabilities by incorporating the ideas, ethics, and support of their juniors. On the other hand, clinicians require good leaders to help them in decision making related to assessment, planning treatment, good communication and proper practice. Both Psychopathology and Pathophysiology are relevant to psychology. As such, they can be used to show the level of understanding and skills one should possess so as to facilitate efficient organization leadership.
Explain psychopathology and pathophysiology
Psychopathology involves the study of mental disorder and commonly used in describing mental ailments (College of Registered Nurses of Nova Scotia, 2008). On the other hand, Psychopathology can be called psychological illness. Assessing mental disorders based on the psychology or dysfunctional character provides delusional views. It encompasses the inability to effectively function, behaving normal or act by the set standards.
Dysfunction hinders individuals the ability to control their sentiments or even characters. For instance, being hysterically sad can lead to dysfunctional traits. Psychological ailments also entail dysfunctions that are used to demonstrate painful impairment, which hinders people ability to work normally.
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With regards to Pathophysiology, it is an uncharacteristic disordered physiological process associated with an ailment or damage. The pathophysiology involves assessing the progress of the illness in the body, which make the patient look for various treatment approaches.
Additionally, Pathophysiology is widely used by health practitioners to not only treat but also diagnose some ailments (College of Registered Nurses of Nova Scotia, 2008). The manner of carrying out interviews is rather individualized as such it purposes to facilitate the collection of data, engage and motivate patients when it comes to assessing and treating the condition.
Review how these terms relate to behavioral assessment, intervention, and implementation in an organizational setting
In clinical field, psychology is associated with behavior assessment, intervention, and execution within the organization by the nature of the study and the wider practice. Psychology is also a comprehensive are of scientific evaluation that is connected to individual issues and psychological principles involving assessment, hindrance, amelioration and convalescence of mental pain, infirmity, flawed personality while increasing psychosocial health.
Assessment, intervention, and implementation can be used in any given clinical institution, which promotes and practices the physical and psychological health of the larger public. For that reason, it is necessary to put into account particular clinical methods including Assessment involves developing behavior, interests, cognition, emotional and understanding. In this case, many approaches can be used to interrogate clients such as psychometric tests, interviews, and observations. As such, psychologists should be competent in so as to select the best approach (Ellis & Hartley, 2005).
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Diagnosis entails using the appropriate diagnostic method based on the client’s intellectual degree, cognitive capacity, psychological state, and behavior. DSM-IV-TR is a suitable tool to diagnose and assess clients with flawed characters.
Intervention: while many interventions can be applied across the organization, clinical experts need particular understanding to diagnose effectively, develop and executed treatment plan. Moreover, they need the knack to examine the correctness and entirety of planning, conceptualization and implementing the results of the intervention or treatment (Guyatt et al. 2008).
The original assessment allows clinicians to make the right diagnosis, provide relevant information on a treatment plan and assistance to patients and their families.
Discuss how an understanding of these concepts will help the clinical supervisor (leader) in the operation of the organization.
Clinical leaders should have a clear and comprehensive recognition regarding the basis and the manner in which the organization can operate routinely. Additionally, they should recognize the leadership concepts, operation, and facilitation.
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For instance, good managers are linked to significant medical supervision when it comes to satisfaction, commitment to the organization and retention. Excellent leadership has a perpetual impact on employees regarding curtailing the high turn-over. Frontline workers are critical to a firm, particularly in a medical facility. The management in tandem with receptionists, medical employees and administrators play a vital function in deducing and understanding the required leadership for sustainable reasons.
The medical manager should ensure the entire team recognizes their obligation and approach work-related tasks to the best of their abilities, towards enhancing the smooth running of the establishment. The leadership should engage its employees in establishing a working culture that is ethically sound in a healthcare environment (Ellis & Hartley, 2005). Moreover, these analytical models will help with upholding strong work standards within the organization.
Analyze the role of a leader when clinicians are involved in individual or group assessments.
The management should participate in frontline supervision for medical personnel working with individual and team assessments to leverage any discrepancies (Guyatt et al. 2008). The management has the solemn obligation; to be readily available in case of any eventuality. In addition, the leadership ought to ensure that medical personnel are executing their functions competently and for the benefit of their clients.
Medical practitioners are the mainstay of the operation within the healthcare facility, as such; the management should ensure clinicians observe work ethics and medical practices (Muir Gray, 1997). Being conscious of the transformation within an organization is rather critical for key leaders overseeing medical personnel in individual and group assessment settings.
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Again, the leadership can assist clinicians in the analysis phase of treatment to establish the attributes of a patient; remedial plans that are suitable for the patient and evaluating behavioral information of the patient. Ultimately, the appraisal and remedial planning should culminate to personalized treatment, appropriate patient treatment and ensuring the organization’s mission is realized through better service delivery (Guyatt et al. 2008).
Conclusion
The mental health workers have the responsibility to work relentless for clients and workmates, particularly if they hold leadership positions. Nonetheless, on many occasions, leaders have often been unable to realize the issue of effective communication. Having the understanding to assemble and keep the right team is dominant for consistency.
The leadership mindset towards their employees will depend on the outcome and nature of work (Ellis & Hartley, 2005). In a nutshell, the leader should be effective when it comes to guiding medical personnel within a health care facility to determine competent leadership skills such as servant, transformation and engaging leadership.
References
College of Registered Nurses of Nova Scotia. (2008). Problematic substance use in the workplace: A resource guide for registered nurses. Halifax: Author.
Guyatt, G., Rennie, D., Meade, M. O., & Cook, D. (2008). Users’ guides to the medical literature: Essentials of evidence-based clinical practice, 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Muir Gray, J. A. (1997). Evidence-based medicine: How to make health policy and management decisions. London: Churchill Press.
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Negotiation: Gambits to Look Out For
The way one behaves during a negotiation can highly affect the outcome. Since negotiations are a voluntary agreement, there is no guarantee at the onset that an agreement will be reached upon (Edward and Roy 2015). It is through the use of proper negotiating skills and application of tactful behaviors that a consensus can be reached (Roger 2012).
A good negotiation approach entails both competitive and cooperative behaviors. Enhancing the deal during the negotiating process require both parties to be cooperative. When both parties are working towards a mutual goal, the process ends up in a win-win situation that usually leads to a future working relationship. Having a cooperative mindset establishes a relationship between the negotiators for value creation.
On the other hand, a competitive mindset is used for claiming of value. Though competitive strategies that claim value usually tend to undermine cooperation between the parties, a cooperative strategy also tends to make one vulnerable to the competitive bargaining techniques. It is, therefore, to apply both cooperative and competitive behaviors during the negotiations.
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One should be mindful of competitive and cooperative negotiating behaviors for some reasons. A competitive mindset gives one the power to control the negotiation process. Since the Navigation system under review had been used to the negotiating and proved to be effective, it will give more value to the company while striking the deal.
Prior information about the government representative can be used to bring cooperativeness in the negotiating process by talking about it and not stating the first quote for the deal. A better deal will be received by having a language and nonverbal behavior that convey confidence and power (Nick 2015).
Negotiation activities are either contractual or for personal purposes. Negotiation with the federal government is a contractual negotiating activity while one involving purchasing of a personal car is a personal purchasing negotiation. A contract exists as a voluntary agreement between parties that have made a promise in exchange for value and negotiating is the process that leads to making the mutual agreements (Edward and Roy 2015).
In negotiated contracts, both parties surrender some measure of power to each other, yet both end up gaining more that they previously had. In personal negotiation, there is no surrendering of freedom by either of the parties since each of them is after a personal gain. While in contractual negotiations there are preparations made, personal purchasing negotiations are random and at the convenience of the buyer.
Some skills are critical in negotiating contracts with the federal government. Preparation is important before entering into a bargaining contractual negotiation. History of the relationship between the two parties and past relationship are crucial in reaching a common goal. Some of the skills a powerful negotiator should possess include:
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Making sure that the other side commits first
According to Roger (2012), power negotiators give the other party the chance to commit first in a negotiation. When the other party commits first, one is in a position to bracket their proposal, gain more information about them and possibly get a better deal than expected.
Pretending to be dumb
A skilled negotiator is able to act stupid in order to get a better perspective of the other party. Acting dumb gives a negotiator an upper hand since the other party sees the negotiator as less intelligent and gives them a better deal in order to help them.
Ability to understand real value of a deal in a warm way.
Instead of giving the real value of the deal, it is wise to break the amount into bits so that the other party doesn’t feel the weight of the whole amount. When the price is broken into small amounts, it is easier for the other party to go ahead and accept it.
Committing to the core issues.
Skilled negotiators learn to focus on real issues in the negotiation rather than be distracted by the other party’s movements. One should be calm and remain in control during the negotiation process for a possible win.
Being complimentary
Even if the other party didn’t perform well in the negotiation, it is highly advisable to congratulate them. When the other party is complimented, chances are that they will raise price for the deal.
Negotiating with a federal government requires the use of skilled tactics to come to a compromise. Failing during a negotiating can hugely affect the growth of a business, and that’s why preparation is adamant for success. Since the government representative is known in advance, the negotiator is at an advantage. It is important to allow the agent name their price first as it will give room for a powerful negotiation.
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Rudy Movie Review
INSTRUCTIONS:
Each student should choose a movie from the list below (or another one with instructor approval). View the entire movie with a critical eye and explain in a 5-7 page report how specific concepts from the field of sport and exercise psychology are exhibited and utilized in the movie. Theoretical explanations should be included, examined, and explored and the application of theory should be thoroughly explained. The paper should follow the evaluation form and should be submitted to Turnitin.
Needs to be about Rudy the Movie and the sports and exercise psychology behind his decisions and motivations.
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Self Harm: Safe Guarding in Health and Social Care
Self harm is a complex issue not only in its definition but also in relation to the insufficiency of data available with regards to the patterns and frequency of this subject across the globe. It is important to not that there is no “universal definition” of self harm. Moreover, diverse views have been raised concerning the causes and risk factors among individuals that harm themselves or others. Generally, self harm which is also referred to as self injury is best understood to entail an individual causing intentional physical pain as a way of solving difficult or painful emotions.
According to the study conducted by Hawton et al,it was determined that some people may harm themselves or others as a means of communicating their distress to the general public (Hawton et al, 2012). This disorder can also be an act of rebellion and the attempt to individualize oneself, a manner of relieving intense anxiety temporarily, a way to regulate pain, an effort to manage emotional numbness, or more still an effort to manipulate other people.
Individuals who harm themselves or/and others may develop an immediate sense of relief by partaking in it. However, it is worth noting that this feeling is a temporary solution the feelings that were distressing them initially will end up recurring once more. Additionally, chronic self harm can result in the development of irreversible damage to the body and/or permanent scarring. This paper seeks to find out why some individuals are more vulnerable to abuse and harm self and others as well as the associated risk factors to this type of behavior.
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Causes of vulnerability to abuse and harm
Just like all other mental disorders, there is no single factor that predisposes a person to engage in self harm. In general, self harm results due to inability of a person to properly manage psychological pain in a manner that is healthy. Often, individuals who engage in this form of unhealthy conduct find it difficult to regulate, express, or understand their emotions. The factors that make individuals to be prone to abuse and harm self or others can be classified as follows;
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Social factors
These are ranked asthe commonest cause of abuse and harm due to the emotional distress that they arouse in people. Social factors that have been pointed predispose individuals to harm include;
Having difficult relationships especially with friends and partners
Having difficulties at school. This is seen commonly among the youth who work hard to obtain good grades but then they end up not getting the results they expected.
Difficulties at work such as demotions, unfair treatment by senior workers and layoffs can also make people to be prone to harm and abuse.
Bullying: This can be at home by older siblings, relatives, or neighbors. It can also be exercised in school or at work. An example of harm to others that was due to bullying is the recent case that was all over the news whereby an American student went to school with a gun and started shooting fellow students randomly (Fisher et al, 2012).
Poverty, whereby a person has several responsibilities such as paying house rent, paying for children school fees, and providing the basic needs for his/her family. This is common among adults who end up being depressed and may subject their depression on their children by beating them up over petty reasons or even without any reason at all.
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Drug and substance abuse: Individuals prone to alcohol and substance abuse disorders tend to be aggressive and are more likely to make claims of having suicidal thoughts or even previous suicidal attempts. In a recent study by Daine et al (2013) of about 6500 adults who enrolled in addiction treatments it was proven that individuals who had engaged in serious acts of violence such as murder, rape, and assault leading to serious injury were more than twice likely to report several suicidal attempts.
Sexuality- Persons who come to terms with their sexual orientation such as being bisexual or gay may be a danger to themselves.
Cultural expectations can promote vulnerability of harm to self. A good example is that of arranged marriages whereby ladies are often forced into marriages against their will or worse even at a tender age.
Trauma can also enhance vulnerability of this disorder. Some causes of trauma include; physical or emotional, sexual abuse such as rape or domestic abuse. The death of a close family member or a close friend and having a miscarriage are also common predisposing factors.
Emotional Distress
Emotions have also been linked abuse and harm vulnerability. An unhappy situation or the distress from a traumatic experience can result in feelings of self hatred or low self esteem. These emotions gradually build up and it becomes difficult for people to seek help. Therefore, self harm or harming others may be a means of releasing these pent-up feelings.
They also indulge in this behavior as a way of coping with their problems. Usually, this is not a sign of seeking attention, but an indicator of emotional distress. Some of these emotions include; guilt, anger, anxiety, grief, numbness or emptiness, loneliness, silenced as a result of abuse, and a feeling of being disconnected from the world.
People that are more prone to harm themselves and others may be having difficulties in regulating or managing their emotions (Figley et al, 2013). Therefore, they use self harm as a means of managing the anger and tension. Further research also reported that such individuals are poorer in solving problems.
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Psychological Causes
These also increase the tendency of people to take part in abuse and harm. For example;
People may be having repeated thoughts about harming themselves and they feel like doing it,
Self harm can also be linked to borderline personality disorder- a disorder that causes instability in a manner that one thinks, behaves, or feels,
Dissociation or loss of touch with oneself- self harm occurs without realizing it,
Organic reasons have also been associated with aggressive outbursts. Take an example whereby a person has damage to his/her frontal lobe or certain forms of epilepsy. In such circumstances, it is difficult to pin-point comprehensible argument for the expression of aggressive episodes.
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Risk Factors for Harming Self and Others
The risk factors of self harm and others are not static. Their value of prediction keeps changing depending on period they occur in a person’s development, social contexts, and the circumstances that one faces. They can be found in an individual, the surroundings, or the individual’s ability to react to the requirements or demands of the environment.
Some factors start manifesting as early as childhood while others do not appear at all until adolescence period or adulthood. Some risk factors entail the family, the school, the neighborhood, or the peer group. Risk factors will be classified as follows for clarity.
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Depression and mental illness
This is one of the most obvious risk factors for indulging in harm to self and others. According to the research conducted by Andover et al, it was proven that mental and addictive disorders result in almost 90% of the suicidal cases reported (Andover et al, 2012). At least one in every twenty youths suffers from mental disorders that are severe enough to impair judgment. However, the sad news is that less than 20% of these individuals receive treatment. Most of those who harm themselves suffer from depression.
School risk Factors
Individuals who view their instructors as not understanding or caring or do not coexist peacefully with their peers have vulnerability of harming others or themselves. They may be associated with the following features;
Past suspension or expulsion for violent behavior
Social isolation, aggressiveness in grade K-3 or hyperactivity
Misbehaving in class, truancy, or being involved frequently in fights
Severe disciplinary issues
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Anger or frustration when handling school artwork or essays
A student that has previously brought a weapon at school
Academic failure when joining school
Academic pressure from parents and guardians.
Community risk factors
Persons that are highly exposed to community violence are at severe risk of engaging in self-destructive behavior. This usually arises when one shapes his/her conduct after what they have learned and experienced in the community. Moreover, some youth who grow up without having meaningful connections with responsible adults lack the necessary guidance that they should acquire so that they may cope with their daily lives (Moran, et al, 2012). Other community risk factors include;
Severe economic deprivation
Easy accessibility to guns, weapons, and other dangerous equipments
Poor community organization and low attachment in the neighborhood
Few recreational activities for people in the community especially the youth
Individuals who have engaged previously in vandalism and destruction of property
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Personal Risk Factors
Persons who have been involved in violent behavior previously
History of being bullied by friends, classmates, or relatives
History of uncontrolled angry outbursts and tantrums
Individuals who have previously bullied their peers and younger youths
Aggression to animals
Alcohol and substance abuse
Previous attempts of suicide
Fire- setting
Persons that result in calling of names and cursing when they are mad
Recent experience of loss, humiliation, or rejection
Cult or gangs involvement
Unstructured time
Preoccupation with explosives and other weapons
Does not own up and blames others for problems they are responsible for
Often having mood swings and significant depression
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Family Risk Factors
History of possession of a weapon and use by a family member
History of being punished frequently
Previous family violence
Inconsistent or severe punishment
Lack of support or proper supervision from parents and guardians
Youth has a past history of abuse by a family member
Individuals who grew up without clear expectations or standards of behavior being imposed on them by their care givers.
Cultural Risk Factors
Conformity issues and assimilation, variations in expectations and gender roles feelings of victimization and isolation can all increase the levels of stress and vulnerability of people. In addition, some cultures especially the Pacific and Asian cultures view self harm particularly suicide as a rational reaction to shame.
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Situational Crises
Daine et al argues that about 30% of individuals’ cases of abuse and harm to self and others are linked to an identifiable precipitating occurrence such as loss of a valued relationship, divorce of parents, the passing away of loved one, or sexual abuse. Normally, all these events coincide with other risk factors (Daine et al, 2013).
Conclusion
Some individuals view self injury engagement as a means of coping with their emotions. However, the troubles they are running away from will still be present even after their self-mutilation. Moreover, the relief that these individuals feel after involving themselves in self harm or abuse of others is usually short term.
Therefore, it can result in greater amounts of self-injurious conducts to acquire relief. Some people have even gone further and described self harm as an addiction. It is difficult to manage such behave just like any other compulsive behavior or addiction. However, proper management plan should be put in place to help these people fight the condition.
Some of the interventions that can be used include interpersonal treatments, therapies of problem-solving, and use of “emergency card” mode of interventions (Rossouw and Fonagy, 2012). Other treatment forms that have proved to be essential include dialectical conduct therapy which is administered often among individuals who self-harm themselves and/or others from time to time.
The burden associated with injury to self and others is often a heavy one, especially because people who engage in this behavior do it in private where they hide their secret from their loved ones and friends. They create a burden that is extremely hard to carry. This may result in more severe self injury to escape the feelings. Therefore, proper platforms should be established whereby such people can be access easily for counseling and support.
Daine, K., Hawton, K., Singaravelu, V., Stewart, A., Simkin, S., & Montgomery, P. (2013). The power of the web: a systematic review of studies of the influence of the internet on self-harm and suicide in young people. PloS one, 8(10), e77555.
Fisher, H. L., Moffitt, T. E., Houts, R. M., Belsky, D. W., Arseneault, L., & Caspi, A. (2012). Bullying victimisation and risk of self harm in early adolescence: longitudinal cohort study. bmj, 344, e2683.
Hawton, K., Saunders, K. E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2012). Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. The Lancet, 379(9834), 2373-2382.
Rossouw, T. I., & Fonagy, P. (2012). Mentalization-based treatment for self-harm in adolescents: a randomized controlledtrial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(12), 1304-1313.
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CHILDREN BCI EXPERIENTIAL IMPACT ON USABILITY ENGINEERING OF COGNITIVE APPLICATIONS
1.1 Emotional importance in usability of cognitive application
1.1.1 Children Cognitive Application
Understanding the emotions of human beings is important as it can help to tell how people usually think. To properly study the human emotions, then children aged 4-6 years old can be used in the study. Children in this age bracket are particularly important for use in the study since they cannot tell what really emotion or feeling is from the things they interact with (Ekman, 1992). In essence, the main aim of this study is to delve into the impact of the emotional of children in usability of technologies designed for children aged from 4 to 6 years old. The thesis also seeks to evaluate the usability of cognitive application – based on the children emotions at three stages in the software development process.
1.1.2 Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI) technology
Brain computer interface (BCI) headset technology would be used as a pathway between human and computer, and it will determine the emotion of the user – such as engagement/boredom, frustration, meditation, instantaneous excitement, and long-term excitement – to really understand the emotion of the target user and to predicate the effectiveness of these emotions in usability engineering of this game based on tree cycles testing. From a usability perspective, the researcher is interested in the following aspects:
(i) Effectiveness: the relative effectiveness of different mnemonic actions of children to reach an intended goal;
(ii) efficiency: time taken to complete tasks related to allocation of resources and usage; and
(iii) satisfaction: measures emotional of children reaction by the Emotiv Epoc headset in different emotions such as instantaneous excitement, long term excitement, meditation, engagement and frustration.
This research is particularly important because of the outcomes that would come out of it: the findings will reveal the children emotional impact in usability engineering of cognitive applications with the use of BCI headset. Moreover, the findings will reveal the emotional reactions of children, the usability engineering methods, and the brain-computer interaction technology; the results will also reveal what the suitable interactive design of memory games for children is; and the extent to which the designed game meet the usability requirements by expert review evaluation and heuristic inspection of experts.
Emotions are of great importance in enhancing or improving any system interaction (Brave & Nass, 2003). Previously, systems used to be developed aesthetically and with no regard or response to the emotional influence which they possessed (Papanek, 1985). In addition, system designers have reported that in the past, interactions with technology, computers in particular, were sterile and unemotional (Brave & Nass, 2003).
Nevertheless, design philosophers, scholars, neuroscientists and psychologists have pointed out that nowadays, emotion plays an integral role in how people interact with technology, which include computers as well as the interfaces that have developed to interact by means of this medium. According to (McCarthy & Wright, 2004), designers of interfaces and interactive systems need to recognize and centralize the emotional-volitional nature of any system.
In addition, it is important that designers understand they do not design emotions, but instead they design for the optimum experience that results from personal interaction with the objects experienced in everyday life. It is worth mentioning that an extensive array of emotions play influential roles in almost every goal-oriented activity (Brave & Nass, 2003).
Emotions are essentially built from plain reactions which easily promote the survival of an organism, hence could easily succeed in evolution (Damasio, 2001). Interestingly enough, (Damasio, 2001) gave a description about the ordering of feelings and emotions. Damasio (2001) pointed out that emotions managed to withstand the evolution test. He added that first, human beings have emotions, and then feelings come second after emotions given that evolution initially came up with emotions and later on feelings followed (Damasio, 2001).
In general, human beings ultimately concern themselves with emotions, those which are made public. Emotions are actions that take place mainly in the public as they are visible to other people considering that they occur on a person’s voice, face, or even in certain conducts. Conversely, feelings of a person are normally concealed, like all mental images necessarily are, and are hidden to anyone save for their owner, the most private property of the organism in whose brain they take place (Damasio, 2001).
Emotion is one of the integral elements that are involved in education and learning (Parkinson, 1996). It affects a person’s decision making, communication and even a person’s capacity to learn. Parkinson (1996) pointed out that emotions influence the decisions that individuals make, how effectively they learn and the way they communicate with other people. Psychologists define emotion as a disorganized, intuitive response, which is caused by a lack of effective adjustment (Cannon, 1927; Schachter & Singer, 1962).
Valence is understood as the amount of negativity or positivity that an individual feels toward something. Conversely, arousal is considered as what gets the attention of an individual. In the field of computing, emotion is integral considering that it has the potential of influencing the effectiveness of learning (McCarthy & Wright, 2004). In this research study, the researcher will look into the kinds of situations which bring about emotions within a learning environment.
As such, in this project, the researcher proposes to utilize an electroencephalography (EEG) device known as the Emotiv EPOC – as conducted in the Software and Knowledge Engineering Research Group (SKERG) at King Saud University – to sense or perceive the emotions of a user through brainwaves in cognitive application game. This will allow the researcher to determine positive or negative emotional impact of this game on children and to establish and understand the usability of these kinds of cognitive applications in childhood.
EEG is essentially an electrophysiological monitoring technique for recording the brain’s electrical activity. This monitoring method is usually non-invasive as the electrodes are placed along the scalp. In specific applications however, invasive electrodes are at times utilized (Tatum, 2014). EEG measures fluctuations of voltage that result from ionic current in the brain’s neurons. Emotiv EPOC – developed by Emotiv Systems – is a neuroheadset which lets the players to control game-play with their emotions, expressions and even their thoughts. It is worth mentioning that the Emotiv EPOC, as Shende (2008) pointed out, is an innovative and pioneering high-fidelity Brain-Computer Interface device for the video game market.
The neuroheadset itself is an easy-to-utilize, glossy and lightweight wireless device that features a number of sensors which are capable of detecting conscious thoughts, expressions, as well as non-conscious emotions basing upon electrical signals around the person’s brain (Shende, 2008). The technology basically processes these signals, allowing the players to be able to control the actions or expressions of their in-game character and influence game-play with the use of their emotions, expressions and thoughts.
The Emotic EPOC can non-invasively detect brain activity with the use of EEG, a measure of brain waves, through external sensors all along the individual’s scalp which detect the electrical bustle in different areas of the furrowed surface of the cortex of the brain, a section which is responsible for handling higher-order thoughts (Sergo, 2008).
The Emotiv EPOC can detect in excess of thirty dissimilar emotions, expressions as well as actions including emotional detections like frustration, exctitement, immersion, tension and meditation; facial expressions like anger/eyebrows furrowed, wink, shock/eyebrows raised, wink, smirk, grimace/clenched teeth, horizontal eye movement, and smile; and cognitive actions like rotate, drop, push, lift, pull on 6 dissimilar axis (Shende, 2008). Owing to these detections, the player enjoys a more lifelike, immersive experience.
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1.1.3 Software Usability Engineering
Emotions, as Parkinson (1996) pointed out, are one of the most important factors for creating highly developed educational systems that are adaptive to the needs of the user. Emotions are vital in a lot of areas of learning including creative thinking, motivation, concentration, and even inspiration. A big part of the presently available educational systems do not consider the effects which the emotions of a user could really have on their learning. As such, this study will improve the usability of user interfaces by applying the tree cycle to measure the user’s emotion in each experiment.
Usability Engineering (UE) is understood as the methodical approach that is used to improve the usability of user interfaces by applying various established techniques during the system development lifecycle (SDLC) (Nielsen, 1993). Five qualities of usability have been identified by (Nielsen, 1993), which include efficient to utilize, easy to learn, error prevention, easy to remember, and satisfying.
As per the standard document ISO 9241-11, usability should cover 3 important things: satisfaction, efficiency and effectiveness. Usability is essentially defined as the degree to which a product could be utilized by specific users to attain specific objectives with satisfaction, efficiency, and effectiveness within a specific context of use.
Satisfaction: this encompasses positive emotions, attitudes and comfort that rise from the utilization of a given service, product or system. Attitudes comprise the degree to which the expectations of the users are attained. An individual user’s satisfaction is a part of his or her experience. This measure of usability is measured using a brief questionnaire basing upon Lewis (1991).
Efficiency: according to ISO 9241, efficiency is defined as the total resources that are used up in a given task. It is the relationship between the outcome attained and the resources utilized. This measure of usability is measured through task times. The metrics of efficiency include the number of keystrokes or clicks which are needed or the total time on task. In general, the task needs to be defined from the perspective of the user and not as a single, granular interaction (Nielsen, 1993).
Navigation design aspects for instance links, menus, keyboard shortcuts, in addition to other buttons have an impact on efficiency. When the designer designs them very well, with actions that are expressed clearly, then less amount of effort and time would be required for users to make action and navigation choices. All in all, making the correct choices for efficient utilization of the software is contingent upon an understanding of the users and the way users prefer working.
Effectiveness: this is understood as the completeness, accurateness, and lack of negative outcomes with which the user achieves specific goals (Lewis, 1991). Effectiveness is established by examining whether or not the goals of the user were attained successfully and whether all work is correct. The usability measure of effectiveness is measured through the number of errors and also through task completion.
ISO 9241-11 describes how to find the information needed to consider when assessing or spelling out usability in terms of measures of user satisfaction and performance. There is explicit guidance on how to explain the context of usage of the product as well as the measures of usability.
Usability testing will be conducted to validate the research using the Emotive EPOC headset tool. The levels of effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction will represent the usability of a cognitive application in the field; the memory game would be designed and implemented by the researcher. The results obtained would show the viably of the approach adopted to conduct a usability testing of a computer game.
1.2 Problem Definition
Emotions are crucial in improving any system interaction. Researchers have reported that emotion plays a fundamental role in the way that individuals interact with technology such as computers. Using youngsters aged 4-6-years-old, this study seeks to gain an insight into the impact of the emotional of children in usability of technologies designed for children aged from 4 to 6 years old.
The researcher will also investigate to determine the impact of these emotions in usability of this game with usability engineering by using BCI headset because this target – the 4-6 year old children – cannot tell really what they feel. The researcher proposes to employ an electroencephalography (EEG) device, the Emotiv EPOC, in detecting the emotions of a user through brainwaves in the cognitive application game to demonstrate that the emotional responses of people could actually vary.
The problem is to understand the impact of children’s emotion in the cognitive application game: children aged 4-6 years. This is significant considering that children cannot really explain their emotion. Therefore this research would help to determine the impact from the children’s minds rather than through conversation since these children cannot actually give good explanation of their young age. Moreover, the researcher will determine how this cognitive application game can be used to improve learning in children rather than just using this innovative technology without any benefits to the users.
1.3 Research Scope
Target user
Target users are basically the individuals or persons who are expected to use the device the researcher is proposing in the study. This study will focus on samples of children aged from 4 to 6 years old from Saudi Arabia; hence the sample will comprise Saudi children only from the Saudi society. These children are the target users. The researcher plans to use them to determine their emotions in usability of technologies designed for them.
Hardware / Software
In this study, usability testing will be conducted for the purpose of validating the research using the Emotive EPOC headset tool. The levels of effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction will represent the usability of a cognitive application in the field of memory game, which would be designed and implemented by the researcher in this research project. It is worth mentioning that the results that would be obtained may show the viably of the approach adopted to carry out a usability testing of a computer game.
1.4 Aims and Objectives
The major aim of this research study is to gain insight into the impact of the emotions of youngsters in usability of technologies designed for children aged from 4 to 6 years old. In addition, this research study seeks to evaluate the usability of cognitive application – based on the children emotions at three stages in the software development process.
Preliminary Study:
Study1: Design a memory game for children emotional impact Interaction (Low-fidelity prototype phase).
Study2: Usability evaluation for the Low-fidelity prototype game by Expert Review and heuristic Inspection (High-fidelity prototype phase).
Study3: Usability evaluation for the High-fidelity prototype game by BCI headset and Cognitive walkthrough Inspection (High-fidelity prototype phase Improve).
1.5 Research Questions
The main question of this research study is: What is the most effectively Children emotional Impact in Usability Engineering of Cognitive Applications using BCI headset?
The sub-research questions as the following:
What are the children emotional reactions, the usability engineering methods and what is the brain computer interaction technology?
How the researcher will understand and investigate the terms of the application for this research is articulated in Chapter 2 – Literature Review.
What is the suitable interactive design of memory games for children?
The empirical study 1 will be carried out as reported in Chapter 3 – Study 1: Designing a memory game for children emotional impact Interaction.
What extent does the designed game meet the usability requirements by expert review Evaluation and heuristic Inspection of experts?
From a usability perspective, the researcher is interested in the following aspects: effectiveness: the relative efficacy of different mnemonic actions of experts to reach an intended aim; efficiency: time taken to carry out and finish tasks relating to allocation of resources and usage; and satisfaction: measures in quantitative surveys from experts (Lewis, 1991). The researcher will investigate applying usability engineering activity to evaluate the Low-fidelity prototype game; this study 2 will be examined exhaustively and reported in Chapter 4 – Study 2: Expert Review and heuristic Inspection.
How can conducting UE with BCI technology evaluation?
From a usability perspective, the researcher is interested in the following aspects: effectiveness: The relative effectiveness of different mnemonic actions of children to reach an intended goal. Efficiency: Time taken to complete tasks related to allocation of resources and usage. Satisfaction: measures emotional of children reaction by the Emotiv Epoc headset in different emotions such as instantaneous excitement, long term excitement, meditation, engagement and frustration.
The researcher will investigate applying different usability engineering activities different from Study 2 with BCI technology to evaluate the High-fidelity prototype game; this Study 3 will be examined fully and reported in Chapter 4 – Study 3: Cognitive walkthrough.
1.6 Research Methodology
The aim and objectives would be achieved through three interrelated studies. The Masters of Science thesis emphasizes concepts and processes related to usability engineering. The design and development of the cognitive game done by the researcher goes beyond the scope of the MSc thesis. The three studies in the project lifecycle are:
Study 1:designing a memory game for children emotional impact interaction
The researcher conducted previous study in designing cognitive game for children – case study – and with semi-structured interviews with neurologists, psychiatrists and education specialists in order to gather information about the current practice in memory game.
Study 2: Expert Review and heuristic Inspection
The researcher conducted usability evaluation inspection methods on Low-fidelity prototype. The experiment focused on the usability of interface/interaction design to engage the expert in the side of cognitive program. Intensive validity testing sessions have been conducted in every field, and challenges faced by the different user groups iteration.
Study 3: Cognitive walkthrough
The researcher conducted usability engineering processes during the development iterations of the game. The Emotiv Epoch EEG headset and Windows platform were selected for the development of the application to ensure usability for the different children groups. The development focused on both the emotion impacts and usability of interface/interaction design to engage children in the cognitive program. Intensive validity testing sessions have been conducted in all development iterations.
1.7 Outline of the Thesis (Document Structure)
Chapter 2 is a review of literature related to the children emotions and usability engineering methods and usability aspects, brain computer interface (BCI) technology and the Emotiv Epoc headset tool. In Chapter 3, Preliminary Study that covers the designing of a memory game for children emotional impact Interaction is discussed. Chapter 4 describes Study 2, the usability evaluation for the Low-fidelity prototype game by Expert Review and heuristic Inspection. I
n Chapter 5, the researcher discusses Study 3 by presenting usability evaluation for the High-fidelity prototype game by BCI headset and Cognitive walkthrough Inspection. Chapter 6 provides a discussion of the results from each of the 3 studies. The thesis is concluded in Chapter 7 by presenting how all the objectives of the three studies have been achieved during the work in this thesis.
References
Brave, S., & Nass, C. (2003). Emotion in Human–Computer Interaction”. In J. Julie & A. Sears (Eds.), The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook. (1st. ed., pp. 81-96). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Damasio, A. R. (2001). Fundamental feelings. Nature, 413, 781.ISO/DIS 9241-11. Ergonomics of human-system interaction — Part 11: Usability: Definitions and concepts.
Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169–200. 1992.
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Teenage Psychotherapy Application
Discussing about underage alcohol consumption can be tough. It is important for the healthcare provider to have a discussion plan as most of the teens are likely to dodge the discussion. To obtain a meaningful discussion, in psychotherapy the first step is to find out the teens perception about alcohol. This will help the healthcare providers debunk the myths that alcohol consumptions gives one pleasure and share the facts that alcohol is a depressant, normally associated with aggressiveness and sadness.
This will help the health care provider appeal the teenager self-respect and empower them with strategies to manage peer pressure. The CDC alcohol consumption statistics is accurate. Most of the adolescents take alcohol without their parent knowledge. Most of these incidences are attributable to peer-pressure (Tanner-Smith and Risser, 2016).
The Neuman Systems Model of psychotherapy is used to give theoretical framework for developing Anorexia. The Neuman Systems Model of psychotherapy helps establish a mutual partnership between patients and their care givers, which helps in understanding the patient environment and in designing appropriate preventive, rehabilitative and corrective measures that will ensure that the desired outcomes are met.
When managing patient diagnosed with Anorexia, the model is used to assess the patient profile, identify stressors perceived by the patients, developmental factors, psycho-social, cultural and spiritual factors, learn the patient’s lifestyle patterns and interventions needed by the client to meet the desired outcome. This is helpful as it helps one deliver care in a comprehensive manner using the primary, secondary intervention as well as the tertiary interventions to promote the client’s health (Neuman and Fawcett, 2012).
The Imogene theory of goal attainment focuses in achieving the set life goals. According to this theory, nurse and patient relationship is important as it facilitates effective communication that will enable then set goals and together design action plan that will enable them achieve the set goals. Anorexia eating disorder results due to a sequence of behaviours which revolve around mental and physical action. According to this theory, to help the patient maintain their health and functionality, the nurse is expected to interact during assessment.
This will help the nurses gather data on patient perceived stressors, cultural and social cultural goals. The theory helps during nursing diagnosis in that through the interaction with the patient, problems and disturbances are identified. This helps in designing an effective care plan that will be used to solve the challenge identified is made. This phase involves making of decision and setting of goals. The continuation of transaction is reflected by implementation phase. This theory guides during the evaluation phase to determine if the goals have been achieved (Alligood, 2010).
Nurses play an integral role in facilitating recovery in patient diagnosed with eating disorders. For this reason, it is important for a healthcare provider understand the helpful strategies that will help the patient restore their health. A comprehensive assessment should be done using the following questions (CDC, 2013);
a) Are you happy with eating pattern?
b) Do you eat in secret?
c) How do you feel about your weight?
During this treatment, the patient should be advised on the effective dietary which will help them achieve the desired weight range. This exercise should be complemented using psychotherapy. The counselling section should involve education on body weight, impacts of starvation and clarification of myths on dietary misconceptions. This will help the patient regain self-esteem and self-control (Moy et al., 2013).
References
Alligood, M. (2010). Family Healthcare with King’s Theory of Goal Attainment. Nursing Science Quarterly.
Moy, J., Petrie, T., Dockendorff, S., Greenleaf, C. and Martin, S. (2013). Dieting, exercise, and intuitive eating among early adolescents. Eating Behaviors, 14(4), pp.529-532.
Neuman, B. and Fawcett, J. (2012). Thoughts about the Neuman Systems Model: A Dialogue. Nursing Science Quarterly, 25(4), pp.374-376.
Tanner-Smith, E. and Risser, M. (2016). A meta-analysis of brief alcohol interventions for adolescents and young adults: variability in effects across alcohol measures. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 42(2), pp.140-151.
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Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression: Incorporating Theory
Description
For the proposed research, the PICO question that guides the study is as follows: In young adults aged 30 to 35 years-old (P), is using a screening tool for depression (I), in comparison to the usual standard of care (C), more accurate in detecting depression (O). This PICO question helps in finding out whether or not there is sufficient evidence to support screening young adults aged 30 years to 35 years for depression with the use of a suitable screening tool.
Utilization in Supporting Solution
The theory that could be utilized in supporting the proposed solution is Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression. Beck identified 3 main components or mechanisms which are responsible for depression. These include: (i) negative self schemas; (ii) the cognitive triad; and (iii) errors in logic, that is, faulty processing of information (Abela & D’Allesandro, 2012). The cognitive triad are 3 types of negative thinking which are common in people who have depression: that is negative thoughts concerning the future, the world, and the self.
These negative thoughts are automatic in individuals with depression since they occur impulsively. Beck pointed out that people who are prone to depression develop a negative self-schema. Such an individual possesses various expectations and beliefs regarding himself or herself which are pessimistic and negative. Individuals who have negative self schemas are inclined to making logical errors in their thinking. They are also inclined to focusing mainly on particular facets of a situation whilst disregarding other information that is equally pertinent (Abela & D’Allesandro, 2012).
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The rationale for selecting this theory is that this theory helps to describe what really is central to depression; that is, the main cause of depression. According to Beck, the cognitive symptoms of depression in fact precede the mood and affective symptoms of depression, and not the other way round. What is central to depression, as Beck pointed out, are the negative thoughts and not low reinforcement rates or hormonal changes as other theorists had suggested (Abela & D’Allesandro, 2012).
This theory works to support the proposed solution in that using depression screening tools, the researcher will be able to determine more accurately the main cause of depression amongst young adults in the United States. In other words, using appropriate screening tools for depression, it would be possible to detect the negative thoughts in people aged 30-35 in the United States considering that negative thoughts are central to depression as per Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression.
Incorporation
The theory would be incorporated into the project by using screening tools for depression which are in line with Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression. One particular screening tool that would be used is the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) which was developed by the same theorist who conceptualized Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression. The BDI-II screening tool for depression would be utilized to detect depression among 30-35 year-old young adults and it would be compared with the usual standard of care currently being practiced in the country.
In essence, using Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression, the negative thoughts of people would be carefully monitored using Beck Depression Inventory. It is expected that depressed people negatively misunderstand information and experiences, as they limit their focus to the negative facets of a situation, therefore feeling hopeless regarding the future (Abela & D’Allesandro, 2012). Using Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression in the project, a direct correlation is postulated between severity of symptoms of depression and negative thoughts.
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Personality Theories
Various psychologists have developed theories that explain certain forms of personality. One of most influential set of counseling theories originates from Sigmud Freud- an Australian neurologist. He was the first to propose the psychoanalysis theory; which collectively are referred to as psychodynamic theories.
Although there are different psychodynamic theories, all of them lay emphasis on unconscious desires and motives, and how childhood experiences shape an individual’s personality. In particular, I will explore on Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis and Jungian theory which belongs to the school of psychodynamic theories; and theories from school of humanistic theories including Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (Thurn, 2015).
The main tenets
Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis was developed by observing patients. Based on this theories, people’s personalities are established when they attempt to resolve conflicts between the societal demands, aggressive impulses and unconscious demands. The main tenets of this theory are the three levels of consciousness.
These include;
a) consciousness which refers to what a person is thinking and or experiencing at a particular time. For example, the book Myre is reading, the objects that are near her sight, the sounds she can hear, and other experiences such as pain, thirst or hunger at that moment are her conscious;
b) pre-conscious which refers to what one can readily remember (call to consciousness). For example, Myre’s home address, make of her vehicle and other past experiences are in pre-conscious level; and
c) unconscious which refers to desires, thoughts as well as impulses that a person is not aware of. These include desires, feelings and memories that influence each aspect of Myre’s life. For example, she could contain feelings of anger towards her classmate for a bullying incident that she may have experienced at age five (Tobin, 2011).
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According to Freud, the structure of personality comprises of 3 major systems namely Id, ego and super ego. Any action taken by a person or any problem they have arises from the degree of balance and interaction among these three systems. Id operates based on the pleasure principle. It is the primitive unconscious part of personality that is present at birth. It comprises of two instincts that compete. These include the life/sexual instincts and the aggressive instinct. Ego works according to the principle of reality.
It acts as a mediator between the id and superego (Davies, 2009). The superego comprises of conscience and moral ideas which are used to judge the id activities. The defense mechanism of Freud’s theory includes repression, denial, displacement and projection. Repression occurs when one have a threatening idea or memory that makes their emotion blocked consciously or unconsciously.
Projection defense mechanism arises when the repressed feelings are associated with someone else. The displacement defense mechanism is directed towards other people or animals that are not real part of the emotion. Reaction formation occurs when a feeling of belief causes anxiety is transformed into the feeling of belief in an individual’s consciousness. Denial is when a person refuses to admit that she has undergone unpleasant experience that provokes their anxiety (Ferrari, 2016).
The other psychodynamic theory is Jungian theory also known as the analytical psychology. This theory divides unconscious into two different parts. The first part is the personal unconscious which is a reservoir of individual’s information as well as memories that were at one point of life was conscious, but it has been forgotten or suppressed. Jungian theory states that personal unconscious theory is unique to each person. Collective unconscious refers to the deepest level of a person’s psyche which consists of the universal memories, experiences and symbols of humans.
It is the reservoir of experiences that are inherited that appear in stories, myths and dreams. According to this theory, personalities arise not only due to system conflicts but also by individuals future goals and desire to fulfill them. Basically, these psychodynamic theories share a general belief that one must explore the unconscious origins and dynamics. The main challenge of these theories is that it is not possible to disconfirm unconscious motives and they violate falsifiability principles (Steinberg, 2015).
Unlike psychodynamic theories, humanistic theories focus on the goodness of a person and their needs to achieve their full potential. Carl Rogers’s personality theory focuses on the importance of self-actualization in shaping the personalities of a human being. According to this theory, human react to stimuli subjective to their reality, and over a period of time, the person develops a self concept.
He further divided self in to two categories namely the real self and the ideal self. He stated that a patient experiences congruence when thoughts on ideal and real self are similar. Therefore, high congruence leads to greater sense of self concept and a productive life. Conversely, if there are any discrepancies between the ideal and actual selves, the patient experiences incongruence state which results into maladjustment (DeRobertis, 2015).
Rogers’s theory also elevates the importance of unconditional positive regard which is determined by the environmental conditions. Unlike Freud, Rogers described the life based on the principles instead of stage of development. Therefore, a healthy person continues to fulfill their potential and ends up having what is known as a good life. Such kind of people allows their personality and self concept to emanate from experience. Based on this theory, fully functioning person posses several traits including openness, existential lifestyle and have organismic trust. Such people have higher degree of freedom, creativity, and reliability which make their lives rich of experiences.
Maslow’s humanistic theory of personality argues that people attain their full potential by moving their basic needs to reach their self actualization. The humanistic psychologist approached the concept of personality by evaluating on a patients subjective experiences, innate drive and free will towards self actualization. The theory explores ways human needs transform throughout a person’s lifespan and the way they influence their personality development.
The tenets of this theory are his established hierarchy of needs which basically lists human needs from the most basic needs to the most advanced needs of actualization which have been developed inform of a pyramid. Each layer of the pyramid must be attained and mastered before one can move up the pyramid. This process is continuous throughout a person’s lifespan (Himelstein, 2011).
References
DeRobertis, E. (2015). Philosophical-anthropological considerations for an existential-humanistic ecopsychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 43(4), 323-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2014.961637
Himelstein, S. (2011). Engaging the moment with incarcerated youth: An existential–humanistic approach. The Humanistic Psychologist, 39(3), 206-221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2011.592436
Porucznik, H. (2012). Psychosomatics today. A psychoanalytic perspective. Psychodynamic Practice, 18(1), 137-141. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14753634.2012.640167
Ratner, J. (2015). Rollo May and the Search for Being: Implications of May’s Thought for Contemporary Existential-Humanistic Psychotherapy. Journal Of Humanistic Psychology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022167815613880
Thurn, D. (2015). A review ofClinical Implications of the Psychoanalyst’s Life Experience: When the Personal Becomes Professional. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 51(3), 562-571. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00107530.2014.963459
Tobin, R. (2011). Fixing Freud: The Oedipus Complex in Early Twenty-First Century US American Novels. Psychoanalysis & History, 13(2), 245-264. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/pah.2011.0091
Tribe, R., & Morrissey, J. (Eds.). (2015). Handbook of professional and ethical practice for psychologists, counsellors and psychotherapists. Routledge.
Welfel, E. R. (2015). Ethics in counseling & psychotherapy. Cengage Learning.
Parahoo, K. (2014). Nursing research: principles, process and issues. Palgrave Macmillan.
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Teenage Violence
Forster, M., Grigsby, T. J., Unger, J. B., &Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of criminology, 2015.
Summary
Forster, Grigsby, Unger and Sussman (2015) conducted a study that investigated the link between gang association, exposure to neighborhood violence and social self control to incidences of aggression at school. The study collected data from minority youths from three Southeast Los Angeles schools. In the literature review, the authors show that aggression is a serious problem in schools. According to Forster et al (2015), over 600,000 teenagers reported assault related injuries annually, in addition, between 20 and 40 percent of school going students had experienced a bullying incident at school. The literature review also revealed that between 700,000 and 1,000,000 teenagers were members of gangs.
Past studies have shown that exposure and association to gangs, affiliation with delinquent peers, and family processes are indicators of violence perpetration and victimization. To investigate the link between the variables, the study sampled 77 female and 87 male 7th and 8th graders in three South Los Angeles middle schools. Questionnaires were used to collect data on substance abuse, demographics, social self-control, and family and peer gang association, neighborhood violence and self-reported aggression.
The study reported that teenagers with high levels of social self-control were less likely to be involved in past week aggressive episodes. Students with friends who were members of gangs reported 91 per cent higher incidents of aggressive episodes. For girls, aggression was 46 per cent higher if the family was affiliated to gangs. Exposure and fear of gun violence also increased the incidence of aggressive episodes by 26 per cent. According to the study, students were most likely to be involved in aggressive incidents if they were male, had friends associated with gangs, and had low levels of social self-control.
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Critique
Forster, Grigsby, Unger and Sussman (2015) is useful study as it explores an area of research where there exist little empirical evidence to link the variables. It is worthwhile to note that the research provides an insightful background on the teenage and school violence. The author then seeks to investigate the factors that lead to high rates of aggression among teenagers and school going students. Unfortunately, the research only sampled 164 students which is a small sample to facilitate the generalization of the results of the study to the general population.
In addition, the study was conducted in only three schools in the South Los Angeles area where gang violence and gun crime is common (Forster et al, 2015). It is obvious that teenage aggression in other areas may be driven by other factors apart from association with gangs and exposure to gun violence. However, the results than link social self-control to lower levels of self-reported aggression can be generalizable to other student populations.
Using self-reported measures is also a major weakness of the study as the students may fail to report honestly on most of the data collected. Observation would have been a better option for collecting the data on past week aggression as opposed to self-reported measures of aggression. Using observation, the researcher would have been able to see and record incidents of aggression rather than hear about them from the participants.
The study rightly concludes that school based interventions can be used to disrupt the development of aggressive behavior. School based programs can help indeed help in the development of social self-control which has an inverse relationship with the development of aggressive behavior.
Application
Forster et al (2015) is a very useful study in research on teenage violence, and associated the associated study areas. The study provides valuable statistics on the state of teenage violence indicating that more than 600,000 school age children report aggression related injuries every year. The study helps to illustrate that teenage violence is a serious problem affecting many school going children and it is an area that warrants further research.
Most importantly, the research identifies some of the factors that are predictors of teenage violence perpetration or victimization. The study reveals that association with gangs and gang members is a contributing factor to aggressiveness among teenagers. Other impacts of gang association such as the tendency to use substances and other truant behaviors can also be investigated in future studies in the area.
The study also reports an inverse relationship between social self-control and incidents of teenage aggression. Further studies also need to be conducted to establish whether self-control can decrease aggression among teenagers who associate with gangs, and have been exposed to gun violence. The study also indicates that self-reported measures of aggression were limitations of the study, and thus another method of data collection like observation can be used for future studies. The study design also provides a research model that can be expanded for future research in the area of teenage truancy and violence.
The research sample for future research on the topic can be expanded to more schools from more heterogeneous school districts to ensure the results can be generalized. Therefore, Forster (2015) is an important research article that provides preliminary evidence linking association with gangs, social self control, and family association with gangs with teenage violence perpetuation. Most importantly, the study establishes several directions for future research in the area.
