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Speed and Agility
Question 1
Sports solely rely on speed and agility as they are essential skills especially for athletes. Agility refers to one’s ability to change direction, start, or stop while in motion. Agility fitness training program focuses on improving reaction and foot speed (Lockie et al, 2014). Caution is taken when leading the speed and agility program. It is important to ensure that all equipments used for speed and agility training are in proper working condition.
The equipments should be assessed before the start of any activities. Another safety measure is ensuring that the trainees or those participating in the program comprehend the exercises they want to attempt for the first time to avoid cases of injury. Also, it is important to ensure that the venue for the programs is free from hazardous objects which can lead to injuries (Jones & Lorenzo, 2013).
In the course of a sport and agility program, it is essential to adhere to the recommended exercises and other safety measures such as wearing shoes and safety clothing during the training period. Introducing the training on a gradual basis before progressing to greater complexity is a crucial safety rule to ensure a foundation of strength in every bit of the speed and agility program.
Question 2
Pec fly with overhead raise is one dynamic warm-up exercise which is a good starting point in a sport and agility program. Its purpose is to increase the motion range of the arms while carrying out the overhead motion. It prepares the arms and chest for the push-ups. Shoulder and chest press ups is another warm-up exercise aimed at preparing the body for the overhead motions (Jones & Lorenzo,2013).
The toe tap to the front warm up exercise aims at increasing the motion range around the hips while at the same time increasing the motion of the quadriceps and also warming up the hamstring. Cross country skiing is another type of warm-up exercise, which is often intended to exaggerate the body to the running motion (Brown & Ferigno, 2014). Adhering to the instructions and safety measures leads to success in carrying out the speed and agility activities.
Jones, M. T., & Lorenzo, D. C. (2013). Assessment of power, speed, and agility in athletic, preadolescent youth. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 53, 693-700.
Lockie, R. G. et al. (2014). The Effects of Traditional and Enforced Stopping Speed and Agility Training on Multidirectional Speed and Athletic Function. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(6), 1538-1551.
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Gender Selection
Introduction
For decades, sex selection has been a controversial issue. Choosing the sex of a child is often viewed as a justifiable act since there is no harm done to anyone. I believe that gender selection creates balance in a family and it is culturally viewed as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill social norms. However, there are ethicists who believe that sex selection reinforces the idea of sexual discrimination within our societies (Caulfield & Brownsword, 2012).
This explains why there are renewed efforts from civil societies and government to analyze arguments presented by different authors who either support or oppose the idea of sex selection.
This essay analyzes the meaning of human dignity from two different perspectives. Furthermore, the essay examines how human dignity is defined by our expression of choices and as an inherent value of the society. Based on a case study, the essay describes the social attitudes, norms and circumstance that influence such choices, and their impact on our understanding of human dignity. The essay presents justifications of particular actions concerning sex selection and analyzes some of the features of human dignity that can be put at risk due to actions arising from these two perspectives mentioned therein above.
The concept of human dignity
Human dignity is defined based on the belief that dignity is inherent; hence, human beings posses specific capabilities that are not found in other creatures. It is these features that help to distinguish human beings from other creatures. However, choosing a child’s sex does not define the inherent dignity of human beings. Permitting gender selection is considered as discrimination against a specific gender making it less valuable (Chapman &Benn, 2013).
There are various social reasons for sex selection. Some of these reasons include having a family balance, replacing the deceased child, cultural reasons et cetera. However, these reasons do not define human dignity especially in situations where boys are preferred more than girls. (Kalfoglou et al, 2013).
Kalfoglou et al (2013) views sex selection as an idea that reinforces sexual discrimination. As a result, human dignity is viewed as a situation where a certain gender is prevented from existing and the action is perceived to be justifiable because most people have not been victims of this cruelty. Therefore, individuals created by choice have do not have a reason to complain.
In spite of the reasons that seek to justify sex selection, it is considered to undermine human dignity; thus, causing harm to the wider society. Sex selection has often led to gender disparities in many countries especially in Asian countries such as China and India. This trend has led to patriarchal societal agreements perceived to discriminate girls and women (Mudde, 2010).
The social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective
Due to advanced technology, sex selection culture has become popular and this has had a negative impact on females. Parents who are able to access technology have the ability of controlling the sex of their children; hence, they are able to escape the societal stigma of failing to give birth to a son. Many parents avoid giving birth to girls since they are viewed as individuals not worth living .Parents perceive that sex selection gives them the ability to choose what type of children they want in terms of sex. However, this process equates children to products (Webb, 2014).
Sex selection can make parents not to accept some of their shortcomings; hence, lowering the child’s self esteem. Having a strong preference for a specific sex can cause harm for the unwanted sex including rejection and killings to avoid societal blames and eliminate shame. However, proponents of this idea argue that it is normal for such ideas to be rejected at the first instance especially when people are unfamiliar with the idea.
Those opposing the idea of sex selection argue that that having children is not a right that one can put conditions to as children should be viewed as gifts from God (De Melo-Martín, 2013). These arguments are based on our cultural beliefs.
According to Caulfield & Brownsword (2012), traditional patterns of giving gifts recommend that a gift should be taken without putting any condition to it. A gift is something should be accepted unconditionally and the same case applies to children. From a cultural perspective, sex selection promotes the idea of treating children as a commodity, which is more or less similar to buying and selling of children. Choosing some of the features one wants is acceptable only to products like cars or other commodities, but this concept does not apply to human beings. Therefore, sex selection is often used to discriminate a specific gender.
Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity
Proponents of sex selection argue that everyone has the right to live his life as he pleases so as long as the person does not cause harm or infringe upon other peoples’ rights. The harm principle implies that individuals opposing sex selection need to prove that the action is going to cause harm to others. In this case, sex selection does not cause harm to anybody. Proponents of sex selection argue that the practice is considered harmful based on sociological and psychological assumptions .They further argue that sex selection is an act that is contrary to religious or moral beliefs (Smolin, 2013).
A report by The Task Force on ethics and laws highlights the common objection arguments used to reject the idea of sex selection. The report indicates that sex selection is compared to mocking God. However, such arguments have been applied to all medical innovations. . It started by rejecting the use of chloroform to relieve pain associated with childbirth. This act was viewed as going against God’s will. Such arguments also applied to the use of inoculation (Li & Pantano, 2013).
Ironically, previous medical innovations viewed as going against God’s will have become part of acceptable medical practices; hence, such objections have not been taken seriously. In fact, such arguments are considered as religious claims .Proponents of sex selection argue that individuals should only refrain from the idea if it contravenes their religious beliefs, but laws should not be imposed on people based on other people’s religious views (Dondorp et al, 2013).
Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective
Defining human dignity based on our expression of choices affects public opinion about such ideas. If these perspectives are not comprehensively analyzed through research, public opinion will be flawed. The main concern is that people can use limited philosophical analysis to influence policy discussions .
The definition of human dignity should not be derived from the fact that it is an individual choice, but the practice should be viewed from both public and professional bioethical discussions as recommended by Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproduction (Medicine, 2015).
Human dignity as a societal inherent value
In the second perspective, it is worth noting that the society often values children’s inherent worth. This limits some of the parents’ choices regarding gender selection. Parents who consider gender selections are said not to uphold societal norms and values which is the societal description for human dignity. According to McGowan & Sharp (2013), parents who select their children’s sex because of non-medical reasons are considered to be immoral in the eyes of the society.
From this perspective, human dignity is viewed as pride in oneself or having the sense of self worth as a human being to live a meaningful life .Therefore, any situation that compromises or humiliates this position is considered as a threat to human dignity. Choosing a particular gender over the other for non-medical reasons places expectations on a specific child, and this fails to recognize the personhood of an individual.
Therefore, sex selection fails to adhere to individual inherent characteristics .Children are often viewed as their parent’s property yet they are their own person .Putting too much expectations on the selected children does not give them the respect they deserve; hence, making them not to be autonomous as human beings are supposed to be (Claassens et al., 2013).
Parents who select the sex of their children view their children as a different person instead of the individual the child is suppose to be. Wudarczyk et al (2013) argues that choosing the sex of a child is failing to respect the human intrinsic values of the individual child. In summary, children need to be valued based on their intrinsic worth as human beings. In other words, the values of children should not be attached to specific characteristics.
Social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective
In western societies, there is no preferred sex, but selection of sex is based on creating gender balance in the family by having both boys and girls. These common occurrences are observed in Australia, Sweden, and the UK. Even though sex selection does not have negative effects in these countries, Asian countries like China, Korea and India are faced with challenges associated with sex selection due to cultural beliefs. These countries prefer boys to girls and this has led to more than 10 million abortions within the last 20 years (Moskovian, 2013).
Activists in Asia are calling for the ban of sex selection. However, due to the different reasons parents in the UK and India have for choosing the sex of their children, banning sex selection which is a worldwide practice will not change the situation especially in India. So long as there are religious and economic incentives attached to boys, banning sex selection will not have any effect especially in Asian countries.
Given the fact that majority of UK population would still prefer their first children to be boys, sex selection technology will be misused to fulfill desires of these parents. In Asian countries, banning sex selection will not change the cultural norms being practiced in these regions (Dyal, 2014).
Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity
There are claims doing rounds that sex selection does not promote the inherent human value, and this is considered as an intuitive reaction, but not a reasonable moral response. The fact that certain human actions are unnatural does not necessary make these actions morally wrong. For example, heart transplant is unnatural but it is meant to save human life (De Melo-Martin, 2013).
The fact that those opposed to the claims that selection of sex should be applicable for medical purposes are not considerate to the fact that medical technologies helps couples with sex-linked genetic disorder to bear a healthy child. This does not translate to misuse of technology to fulfill their personal desires. Furthermore, those in support of sex selection argue that this practice eliminates girls in a humane way as compared to other methods like abortion or neglect, meaning that girls whose birth can be avoided will not be exposed to oppression or discrimination (Tregenza-Parker, 2013).
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In the current health care systems, physicians provide services that do not have direct medical benefits, but add value to individuals who seek for such services like cosmetic surgeries and ultrasound. The same view is applicable when it comes to sex selection. Offering sex selection services is also viewed as misuse of limited medical resources, but offering other services like face-lifts is not considered as s misallocation of limited medical resources. According to WHO Press (2011), the idea of sex selection has been misrepresented in most cases.
The most common argument is that sex selection causes social imbalances of sexes in India and China. The concern whether sex ratio is a threat to the western societies is more of a intuitive reaction devoid of concrete evidence .The idea of calling sex selection a sexist sin is not justifiable because most parents who prefer choosing the sex of their children do so based on the fact that they are motivated by the idea of having children from both sexes. People who believe that raising a boy is different from a girl are those who base their thinking on cultural values of children whereby girls are considered to be different from boys (Cooley &Chesnokova,2011).
Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective
The facts that arguments against sex selection are more about their consequences, these arguments are based on assumptions; hence, it is not easy to prevent some of the consequences from happening. It is not essay to draw legal lines to permit some forms of sex selection while limiting others. The main worry in such a situation is how parents are likely to spend their money on technology to ensure that their children are born with the specifications they want.
This can often lead to misuse of technology. The other concern is that if sex selection is acceptable, it will make one sex preferable than the other. As a result, it will make it hard to promote anti-discriminatory measures in several countries (Lee, 2016).
Conclusion
It not surprising that sex selection is controversial. , Different people justify their reasons for gender selection viewing it as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill societal norms. Others view sex selection as a practice that reinforces discrimination while at the same time it goes against the inherent nature of human value. These two perspectives can describe human dignity from different views.
The case study of sex selection helps us to understand some of the social attitudes, norms and circumstances that can influence our choices and how sex selection from these two perspectives can impact on our understanding of human dignity based on the justification presented in support of this action.
Some of the justifications presented in the essay are likely to influence the perception of individuals in understanding the meaning of human dignity; hence, influencing our actions. In conclusion, it is important to define human dignity from a multi-dimensional perspective as compared to defining it from isolated arguments to accurately establish its meaning.
References
Caulfield, T., & Brownsword, R. (2012). Human dignity: a guide to policy making in the Biotechnology era? Nature Reviews Genetics, 7(1), 72-76.
Chapman, A. R., & Benn, P. A. (2013). Noninvasive prenatal testing for early sex identification: A few benefits and many concerns. Perspectives in biology and medicine, 56(4), 530-547.
De Melo-Martín, I. (2013). Sex selection and the procreative liberty framework. KennedyInstitute of Ethics Journal, 23(1), 1-18.
Dondorp, W., De Wert, G., Pennings, G., Shenfield, F., Devroey, P., Tarlatzis, B., & Diedrich,
K. (2013). ESHRE Task Force on ethics and Law 20: sex selection for non-medical reasons. Human Reproduction, 28(6), 1448-1454.
Cooley, D. & Chesnokova, I. (2011). Sex Selection Abortion in Kazakhstan: Understanding a Cultural Justification, Developing World Bioethics 11, (3). 159–60.
De Melo-Martin, I. (2013). The Ethics of Sex Selection. Ethics and Emerging Technologies, 90.
Dyal, M. (2014). Whether sex-selection for non-medical reasons, using pre-implantation geneticdiagnosis, should be permitted in the UK. University of Birmingham.
Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2015). Use of Reproductive technology for sex selection for nonmedical reasons. Fertility and Sterility, 103(6), 1418-1422.
Kalfoglou, A. L. et al (2013). Ethical arguments for and against sperm sorting for non-medical sex selection: a review. Reproductive biomedicineonline, 26(3), 231-239.
Lee, M. Y. K. (2016). From the case of sex discrimination to the ideas of equality and equal opportunities. InEthical Dilemmas in Public Policy (pp. 111-127). Springer Singapore.
Li, Q., & Pantano, J. (2013). The Demographic Consequences of Gender Selection Technology. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 95, (5): 1549–1561.
McGowan, M. L., & Sharp, R. R. (2013). Justice in the context of family balancing. Science,Technology & human values, 38(2), 271-293. Current opinion in psychiatry, 26(5), 474.
Tregenza-Parker, G. (2013). Sex Selection for Family Balancing? A Legal and Ethical Analysis.
Smolin, D. M. (2013). Sex Selection, the Missing Girls of China and India, and the Challenges of Technological Control of Procreation. Regent JL & Pub. Pol’y, 6, 49.
Moskovian, A. (2013). Bans on Sex-Selective Abortions: How Far is Too Far?. HastingsConstitutional Law Quarterly, 40(2).
Mudde ,A. (2010).‘Before You Formed in the Womb I Knew You’: Sex Selection and Spaces of Ambiguity, Hypatia 25 (3).563–64.
Webb, D. C. (2014). The Sex Selection Debate: A Comparative Study of Sex Selection Laws in the United States and the United Kingdom. South Carolina Journal of International Lawand Business, 10(1), 6.
WHO Press (2011). World Health Organization, Preventing Gender-based Sex Selection: An Interagency Statement OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women and WHO. Geneva. WHO Press
Wudarczyk, O. A.et al (2013). Could intranasal oxytocin be used to enhance relationships? Research imperatives, clinical policy, and ethical considerations.
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Website Development Portal Site (1S)
This paper gives an outline of the development of a design document for a website that is meant to assist students at Trident University International with the ITM program as they transition through this from their first courses to the last through the utilization of the Information Architecture (IA) design method from the Webmonkey site.
Goal Definition
The short and long term goals for this site will include
The primary short term goal in this case will be in easing the usability of the site, a factor that will make the site navigable thus enabling the students to utilize the contents of the site through their current course workloads (Balloni, 2010). This will be achieved through the development of a navigational system that clearly states the objectives of the course and a flow of communication, a factor that will make accessibility simpler for the students.
On the other hand, the long-term goals on this site will be pegged on assisting the students through their entire courses as Trident University. This will therefore determine the inclusion of a communicational flow, a single sign-on, grading systems, an auto-enroll policy and a transitioned approach upon graduation.
Questions To Structure the Goals of the Website
Some of the essential questions that will be used in structuring the goals of the site include:
Question 1: Who are the sites intended audience
Answer: The site will focus on the current students, the Trident Universities Faculty members, the student’s family members and the Alumnae’s who will be included for the purposes of keeping records.
Question 2: Why will the students come to my website?
Answer: The rationale for students visiting my site will be based on the complete support that the site offers the learners, a factor that will aid them in getting information about the systems of the university for the future students and parents. This will be achieved through the inclusion of a fully supported program for the students in ITM.
Considering that these questions are straightforward, they will be blended with the aim of developing the conceptual framework that will be utilized in building the website that will support the ITM students through their learning period in this institution (Scacchi, 2003). Having summarized and determined the questions in this first part, the design of this document will additionally focus on a short discussion of the goals that I would want to achieve in the development of this site.
It is in this case important to indentify that the overall goal I have developed for this site is in the fact that the site will be a source of support to the students in their ITM program. The site will be in a position of helping the student’s in making transitions from their first course through to the last. My short term focus will be based on the concentration that will be initiated to provide the most essential and immediate programs that meet the learning needs of the students in their current course schedules.
In this case, the website will be developed in a manner that enables the students to easily access their course contents with the aim of acquiring their current course needs in this portal. This therefore means that the website will provide background information of the sources as well as the objectives that will be incorporated through an open line of communication that allows the students to interact with other peers who are undertaking the same course (Scacchi, 2003).
Additionally, the support provided in the site will also take the form of developing interactive segments with the professors, thus aimed at helping the students receive answers to their questions during the course duration. Considering that the institution has a large populace, the site will be developed to allow multiple usability including its accessibility in different locations.
Taking a closer consideration of the long-term goals of this site, there is a need of developing an achieve that will enable the returning students on the site to acquire information on the courses that they had undertaken and the remaining courses required to fulfill the institutions courses required in graduating to the degree level (Sommerville, 2010). This record will also grant the graduating students the ability to review their performances. Additionally, the site will also have a single sign-in interface that will ensure the students do not make multiple logins to access the site.
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A public access section will also be included in the site that will give the usurers of this site the capacity to conduct overviews of the Universities structures and systems and the manner in which the ITM course relates to the core functions of the University. It is important to mention that this faced will be disintegrated during the process of design documentation (Sommerville, 2010).
However, my main objective is directed towards the development of a site that will enable the students and other prospective students including the graduates to access relevant content on their course including offering the assistance through their entire courses as Trident University
In order to develop an effective site, I conducted a survey on some of the students to determine what they would prefer having on the site. I was in a position to learn that the students wanted an inclusion of the institutions curriculum activities in the site. This would make the site interesting and attractive. Additionally, the students wanted some section of the site include the levies that would be paid in every semester in order to allow them access such information through the site.
References
Balloni, A. (2010). Challenges and Reflections on Knowledge Society and Sociotechnical Systems, The International Journal of Managing Information Technology (IJMIT) 2, 1, February 2010. Retrieved on July 26, 2010, from http://airccse.org/journal/ijmit/papers/0210ijmit3.pdf
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Sex Selection
Introduction
For decades, sex selection has been a controversial issue. Choosing the sex of a child is often viewed as a justifiable act since there is no harm done to anyone. I believe that gender selection creates balance in a family and it is culturally viewed as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill social norms. However, there are ethicists who believe that sex selection reinforces the idea of sexual discrimination within our societies (Caulfield & Brownsword, 2012).
This explains why there are renewed efforts from civil societies and government to analyze arguments presented by different authors who either support or oppose the idea of sex selection.
This essay analyzes the meaning of human dignity from two different perspectives. Furthermore, the essay examines how human dignity is defined by our expression of choices and as an inherent value of the society. Based on a case study, the essay describes the social attitudes, norms and circumstance that influence such choices, and their impact on our understanding of human dignity. The essay presents justifications of particular actions concerning sex selection and analyzes some of the features of human dignity that can be put at risk due to actions arising from these two perspectives mentioned therein above.
The concept of human dignity
Human dignity is defined based on the belief that dignity is inherent; hence, human beings posses specific capabilities that are not found in other creatures. It is these features that help to distinguish human beings from other creatures. However, choosing a child’s sex does not define the inherent dignity of human beings. Permitting gender selection is considered as discrimination against a specific gender making it less valuable (Chapman &Benn, 2013).
There are various social reasons for sex selection. Some of these reasons include having a family balance, replacing the deceased child, cultural reasons et cetera. However, these reasons do not define human dignity especially in situations where boys are preferred more than girls. (Kalfoglou et al, 2013).
Kalfoglou et al (2013) views sex selection as an idea that reinforces sexual discrimination. As a result, human dignity is viewed as a situation where a certain gender is prevented from existing and the action is perceived to be justifiable because most people have not been victims of this cruelty. Therefore, individuals created by choice have do not have a reason to complain.
In spite of the reasons that seek to justify sex selection, it is considered to undermine human dignity; thus, causing harm to the wider society. Sex selection has often led to gender disparities in many countries especially in Asian countries such as China and India. This trend has led to patriarchal societal agreements perceived to discriminate girls and women (Mudde, 2010).
The social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective
Due to advanced technology, sex selection culture has become popular and this has had a negative impact on females. Parents who are able to access technology have the ability of controlling the sex of their children; hence, they are able to escape the societal stigma of failing to give birth to a son. Many parents avoid giving birth to girls since they are viewed as individuals not worth living .Parents perceive that sex selection gives them the ability to choose what type of children they want in terms of sex. However, this process equates children to products (Webb, 2014).
Sex selection can make parents not to accept some of their shortcomings; hence, lowering the child’s self esteem. Having a strong preference for a specific sex can cause harm for the unwanted sex including rejection and killings to avoid societal blames and eliminate shame. However, proponents of this idea argue that it is normal for such ideas to be rejected at the first instance especially when people are unfamiliar with the idea.
Those opposing the idea of sex selection argue that that having children is not a right that one can put conditions to as children should be viewed as gifts from God (De Melo-Martín, 2013). These arguments are based on our cultural beliefs.
According to Caulfield & Brownsword (2012), traditional patterns of giving gifts recommend that a gift should be taken without putting any condition to it. A gift is something should be accepted unconditionally and the same case applies to children. From a cultural perspective, sex selection promotes the idea of treating children as a commodity, which is more or less similar to buying and selling of children. Choosing some of the features one wants is acceptable only to products like cars or other commodities, but this concept does not apply to human beings. Therefore, sex selection is often used to discriminate a specific gender.
Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity
Proponents of sex selection argue that everyone has the right to live his life as he pleases so as long as the person does not cause harm or infringe upon other peoples’ rights. The harm principle implies that individuals opposing sex selection need to prove that the action is going to cause harm to others. In this case, sex selection does not cause harm to anybody. Proponents of sex selection argue that the practice is considered harmful based on sociological and psychological assumptions .They further argue that sex selection is an act that is contrary to religious or moral beliefs (Smolin, 2013).
A report by The Task Force on ethics and laws highlights the common objection arguments used to reject the idea of sex selection. The report indicates that sex selection is compared to mocking God. However, such arguments have been applied to all medical innovations. . It started by rejecting the use of chloroform to relieve pain associated with childbirth. This act was viewed as going against God’s will. Such arguments also applied to the use of inoculation (Li & Pantano, 2013).
Ironically, previous medical innovations viewed as going against God’s will have become part of acceptable medical practices; hence, such objections have not been taken seriously. In fact, such arguments are considered as religious claims .Proponents of sex selection argue that individuals should only refrain from the idea if it contravenes their religious beliefs, but laws should not be imposed on people based on other people’s religious views (Dondorp et al, 2013).
Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective
Defining human dignity based on our expression of choices affects public opinion about such ideas. If these perspectives are not comprehensively analyzed through research, public opinion will be flawed. The main concern is that people can use limited philosophical analysis to influence policy discussions .
The definition of human dignity should not be derived from the fact that it is an individual choice, but the practice should be viewed from both public and professional bioethical discussions as recommended by Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproduction (Medicine, 2015).
Human dignity as a societal inherent value
In the second perspective, it is worth noting that the society often values children’s inherent worth. This limits some of the parents’ choices regarding gender selection. Parents who consider gender selections are said not to uphold societal norms and values which is the societal description for human dignity. According to McGowan & Sharp (2013), parents who select their children’s sex because of non-medical reasons are considered to be immoral in the eyes of the society.
From this perspective, human dignity is viewed as pride in oneself or having the sense of self worth as a human being to live a meaningful life .Therefore, any situation that compromises or humiliates this position is considered as a threat to human dignity. Choosing a particular gender over the other for non-medical reasons places expectations on a specific child, and this fails to recognize the personhood of an individual.
Therefore, sex selection fails to adhere to individual inherent characteristics .Children are often viewed as their parent’s property yet they are their own person .Putting too much expectations on the selected children does not give them the respect they deserve; hence, making them not to be autonomous as human beings are supposed to be (Claassens et al., 2013).
Parents who select the sex of their children view their children as a different person instead of the individual the child is suppose to be. Wudarczyk et al (2013) argues that choosing the sex of a child is failing to respect the human intrinsic values of the individual child. In summary, children need to be valued based on their intrinsic worth as human beings. In other words, the values of children should not be attached to specific characteristics.
Social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective
In western societies, there is no preferred sex, but selection of sex is based on creating gender balance in the family by having both boys and girls. These common occurrences are observed in Australia, Sweden, and the UK. Even though sex selection does not have negative effects in these countries, Asian countries like China, Korea and India are faced with challenges associated with sex selection due to cultural beliefs. These countries prefer boys to girls and this has led to more than 10 million abortions within the last 20 years (Moskovian, 2013).
Activists in Asia are calling for the ban of sex selection. However, due to the different reasons parents in the UK and India have for choosing the sex of their children, banning sex selection which is a worldwide practice will not change the situation especially in India. So long as there are religious and economic incentives attached to boys, banning sex selection will not have any effect especially in Asian countries.
Given the fact that majority of UK population would still prefer their first children to be boys, sex selection technology will be misused to fulfill desires of these parents. In Asian countries, banning sex selection will not change the cultural norms being practiced in these regions (Dyal, 2014).
Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity
There are claims doing rounds that sex selection does not promote the inherent human value, and this is considered as an intuitive reaction, but not a reasonable moral response. The fact that certain human actions are unnatural does not necessary make these actions morally wrong. For example, heart transplant is unnatural but it is meant to save human life (De Melo-Martin, 2013).
The fact that those opposed to the claims that selection of sex should be applicable for medical purposes are not considerate to the fact that medical technologies helps couples with sex-linked genetic disorder to bear a healthy child. This does not translate to misuse of technology to fulfill their personal desires. Furthermore, those in support of sex selection argue that this practice eliminates girls in a humane way as compared to other methods like abortion or neglect, meaning that girls whose birth can be avoided will not be exposed to oppression or discrimination (Tregenza-Parker, 2013).
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In the current health care systems, physicians provide services that do not have direct medical benefits, but add value to individuals who seek for such services like cosmetic surgeries and ultrasound. The same view is applicable when it comes to sex selection. Offering sex selection services is also viewed as misuse of limited medical resources, but offering other services like face-lifts is not considered as s misallocation of limited medical resources. According to WHO Press (2011), the idea of sex selection has been misrepresented in most cases.
The most common argument is that sex selection causes social imbalances of sexes in India and China. The concern whether sex ratio is a threat to the western societies is more of a intuitive reaction devoid of concrete evidence .The idea of calling sex selection a sexist sin is not justifiable because most parents who prefer choosing the sex of their children do so based on the fact that they are motivated by the idea of having children from both sexes. People who believe that raising a boy is different from a girl are those who base their thinking on cultural values of children whereby girls are considered to be different from boys (Cooley &Chesnokova,2011).
Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective
The facts that arguments against sex selection are more about their consequences, these arguments are based on assumptions; hence, it is not easy to prevent some of the consequences from happening. It is not essay to draw legal lines to permit some forms of sex selection while limiting others. The main worry in such a situation is how parents are likely to spend their money on technology to ensure that their children are born with the specifications they want.
This can often lead to misuse of technology. The other concern is that if sex selection is acceptable, it will make one sex preferable than the other. As a result, it will make it hard to promote anti-discriminatory measures in several countries (Lee, 2016).
Conclusion
It not surprising that sex selection is controversial. , Different people justify their reasons for gender selection viewing it as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill societal norms. Others view sex selection as a practice that reinforces discrimination while at the same time it goes against the inherent nature of human value. These two perspectives can describe human dignity from different views.
The case study of sex selection helps us to understand some of the social attitudes, norms and circumstances that can influence our choices and how sex selection from these two perspectives can impact on our understanding of human dignity based on the justification presented in support of this action.
Some of the justifications presented in the essay are likely to influence the perception of individuals in understanding the meaning of human dignity; hence, influencing our actions. In conclusion, it is important to define human dignity from a multi-dimensional perspective as compared to defining it from isolated arguments to accurately establish its meaning.
References
Caulfield, T., & Brownsword, R. (2012). Human dignity: a guide to policy making in the Biotechnology era? Nature Reviews Genetics, 7(1), 72-76.
Chapman, A. R., & Benn, P. A. (2013). Noninvasive prenatal testing for early sex identification: A few benefits and many concerns. Perspectives in biology and medicine, 56(4), 530-547.
De Melo-Martín, I. (2013). Sex selection and the procreative liberty framework. KennedyInstitute of Ethics Journal, 23(1), 1-18.
Dondorp, W., De Wert, G., Pennings, G., Shenfield, F., Devroey, P., Tarlatzis, B., & Diedrich,
K. (2013). ESHRE Task Force on ethics and Law 20: sex selection for non-medical reasons. Human Reproduction, 28(6), 1448-1454.
Cooley, D. & Chesnokova, I. (2011). Sex Selection Abortion in Kazakhstan: Understanding a Cultural Justification, Developing World Bioethics 11, (3). 159–60.
De Melo-Martin, I. (2013). The Ethics of Sex Selection. Ethics and Emerging Technologies, 90.
Dyal, M. (2014). Whether sex-selection for non-medical reasons, using pre-implantation geneticdiagnosis, should be permitted in the UK. University of Birmingham.
Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2015). Use of Reproductive technology for sex selection for nonmedical reasons. Fertility and Sterility, 103(6), 1418-1422.
Kalfoglou, A. L. et al (2013). Ethical arguments for and against sperm sorting for non-medical sex selection: a review. Reproductive biomedicineonline, 26(3), 231-239.
Lee, M. Y. K. (2016). From the case of sex discrimination to the ideas of equality and equal opportunities. InEthical Dilemmas in Public Policy (pp. 111-127). Springer Singapore.
Li, Q., & Pantano, J. (2013). The Demographic Consequences of Gender Selection Technology. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 95, (5): 1549–1561.
McGowan, M. L., & Sharp, R. R. (2013). Justice in the context of family balancing. Science,Technology & human values, 38(2), 271-293. Current opinion in psychiatry, 26(5), 474.
Tregenza-Parker, G. (2013). Sex Selection for Family Balancing? A Legal and Ethical Analysis.
Smolin, D. M. (2013). Sex Selection, the Missing Girls of China and India, and the Challenges of Technological Control of Procreation. Regent JL & Pub. Pol’y, 6, 49.
Moskovian, A. (2013). Bans on Sex-Selective Abortions: How Far is Too Far?. HastingsConstitutional Law Quarterly, 40(2).
Mudde ,A. (2010).‘Before You Formed in the Womb I Knew You’: Sex Selection and Spaces of Ambiguity, Hypatia 25 (3).563–64.
Webb, D. C. (2014). The Sex Selection Debate: A Comparative Study of Sex Selection Laws in the United States and the United Kingdom. South Carolina Journal of International Lawand Business, 10(1), 6.
WHO Press (2011). World Health Organization, Preventing Gender-based Sex Selection: An Interagency Statement OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women and WHO. Geneva. WHO Press
Wudarczyk, O. A.et al (2013). Could intranasal oxytocin be used to enhance relationships? Research imperatives, clinical policy, and ethical considerations.
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Leadership Styles, Employee Satisfaction and Productivity
Abstract
This study sought to identify the types of leadership styles exhibited by management, the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles. The study will adopted a descriptive survey of non-experimental research design to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity. The study will rely on simple random and purposive sampling techniques in selecting a total of 120 respondents for the study.
The study will also expose that leaders who exhibited democratic (participative), people-oriented or transformational leadership characteristics for that matter, enhanced staff productivity. Leadership is a process influence between leaders and subordinates where a leader attempts to influence the behavior of subordinates to achieve the organizational goals. Organizational success in achieving its goals and objectives depends on the leaders of the organization and their leadership styles. By adopting the appropriate leadership styles, leaders can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
Background to the study
In recent times, organizations are going through dramatic changes, including flatter and looser structures, downsizing, and horizontal approaches to information flow. On the one hand, these changes are due to rapid technological developments, global competition and changing nature of the workforce. On the other hand, these organizational transformations and innovations are triggered by interventions such as total quality management and business process re- engineering.
Leadership is regarded as a critical factor in the initiation and implementation of the transformations in the organizations. In the past, leaders were identified, selected and installed based on the trait approach. The trait theory argues that leaders have certain personalities, social and physical characteristics, known as traits, which influence whether the person acts as a leader. Proponents of this view assert that qualities such as intelligence, knowledge and expertise, dominance, self-confidence, high energy, tolerance for stress, integrity and maturity were inborn.
The approach thus, rests on the assumption that some people were born to lead due to the presence of these qualities in them while others are not. This approach has witnessed a lot of criticisms from researchers and practitioners as a result of certain inconsistencies associated with it.
Effective leadership and employee job satisfaction are two factors that have been regarded as fundamental for organizational success. A capable leader provides direction for the organization and lead followers towards achieving desired goals. In similar vein, employees with high job satisfaction are likely to exert more effort in their assigned tasks and pursue organizational interests. An organization that fosters high employee job satisfaction is also more capable of retaining and attracting employees with the skills that it needs (Mosadegh Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006).
Several studies have also examined the relationship between the two factors and concurred that leadership has significant impacts on job satisfaction and organisational commitment (William & Hazer, 1986). High job satisfaction enhances employees’ psychological and physical wellbeing (Ilardi, Leone, Kansser, & Ryan, 1983) and positively affects employee performance (Vroom, 1964).
According to Mosadegh Rad and Yarmohammadian (2006), employee job satisfaction refers to the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organization which employs them. In particular, leaders within organizations can adopt appropriate leadership styles to affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
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Previous studies have examined the relationship between employee job satisfaction and leadership behavior in various settings such as healthcare, military, education and business organizations (Chen & Silversthorne, 2005). Consistent with this, the present study intends to examine the relationship between leadership styles, job satisfaction and in the public sector. Two types of leadership styles will be examined, namely, transactional and transformational leadership.
General Objective
The overall aim of the study is to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Specific objectives:
1. To determine the relationship between aspects of transactional leadership such as contingent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception with job satisfaction among employees.
Research Questions
What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
What is the type of leadership styles that exists in the chosen organization?
What is the impact of leadership styles on staff productivity?
What is the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction?
Significance of the study
The research will be of great value to firms that need to improve staff productivity and employee satisfaction The research will also be of benefit to the research community in by suggesting areas that scholars can venture into. Thus it will act as a background research for future studies.
Research methodology
This section will provide the process of collecting the, outline the research design and the population and sample of the study. Study parameters such as the study setting, the type of data to be collected, the time of conducting the study and the limitations of the study will discussed as well.
Research Design
This study is quantitative in nature and descriptive research will be used incorporating the case study design in the study. A case study is concerned with investigating a given phenomenon in great detail. The main reason behind using this design is to establish the extent to which the variables under study influence of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles.
The study will adopted descriptive survey for the data collection in order to answer the research questions because the researchers did not control factors that might influence the behavior and performance of subjects under study thereby reporting the outcome as they are (Smith, 1975).This study adopted qualitative method to assess the effects of leadership styles on staff productivity and employee satisfaction.
Target population
The target population will involve the total number of all units from in the organization. This study will be conducted among the various units of the institution where selected heads and other members of staff of were sampled to obtain in-depth data on how leadership style affected staff productivity and employee satisfaction.
Sample Size Determination
The target population will indicate above as 515 and a sample of 120 will be drawn for the study. The research will considered this sample size as a representation of the total population. Nwana (1992) suggests that if the population is a few hundred, a 40% or more sample size will do, if several hundred a 20% or more sample size will be suitable, if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do. Based on this criterion, 23.3% of 515 will equal to 120 and hence the sample size drawn for the study.
Procedure for Data Collection
The research will begin the study with a visit to all the various units and departments and also interacted with a number of staff. With this, the researcher will get to know members of staff well and better understood the institution and its structures. The objectives of the study will be made known to the respondents and also assured them of treating their information with utmost confidentiality. Assurances from a researcher to respondents of confidentiality of information being sought will make the interviewees more relaxed and open in their responses.
Data Presentation and Analysis
Computer data analyses software such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 17) and other relevant software such as Microsoft Excel were the main tools employed to analyze. The justification for the choice of these programs was that, these techniques facilitated word processing and data analysis very easy and accurate.
REFERENCES
Adair, J. (1973) Action-Centred Leadership. New York,: McGraw-Hill.
Archer, F. K., Adentwi, K. I.and Sam, F. K. (2008) Educational Management and School Administration: Ebens Press.
House, R. (1976) „A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership‟, in J.Hunt and L. Larson (eds)
Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J.(1989). Transformational versus transactional leadership: How they impact innovation, risk-taking, organization structure and performance. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington, DC.
Kilpatrick, S. And Locke, E. (1991) „Leadership: Do Traits Matter?‟ Academy of Management Executive Vol. 5 , No. 2, pp. 48-60.
Lewin,K., LIippit, R. and White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301.
Müller, R., and Turner, J. R.(2005). Cultural differences in project owner-manager communication. In D. P. Slevin, D.
Yammarino, F.J. and Dubinsky, A.J. (1994). Transformational leadership theory: using levels of analysis to determisne boundary conditions. Personnel Psychology, 47 (4), p. 787.
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Human Dignity
Introduction
For decades, sex selection has been a controversial issue. Choosing the sex of a child is often viewed as a justifiable act since there is no harm done to anyone. I believe that gender selection creates balance in a family and it is culturally viewed as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill social norms. However, there are ethicists who believe that sex selection reinforces the idea of sexual discrimination within our societies (Caulfield & Brownsword, 2012).
This explains why there are renewed efforts from civil societies and government to analyze arguments presented by different authors who either support or oppose the idea of sex selection.
This essay analyzes the meaning of human dignity from two different perspectives. Furthermore, the essay examines how human dignity is defined by our expression of choices and as an inherent value of the society. Based on a case study, the essay describes the social attitudes, norms and circumstance that influence such choices, and their impact on our understanding of human dignity. The essay presents justifications of particular actions concerning sex selection and analyzes some of the features of human dignity that can be put at risk due to actions arising from these two perspectives mentioned therein above.
The concept of human dignity
Human dignity is defined based on the belief that dignity is inherent; hence, human beings posses specific capabilities that are not found in other creatures. It is these features that help to distinguish human beings from other creatures. However, choosing a child’s sex does not define the inherent dignity of human beings. Permitting gender selection is considered as discrimination against a specific gender making it less valuable (Chapman &Benn, 2013).
There are various social reasons for sex selection. Some of these reasons include having a family balance, replacing the deceased child, cultural reasons et cetera. However, these reasons do not define human dignity especially in situations where boys are preferred more than girls. (Kalfoglou et al, 2013).
Kalfoglou et al (2013) views sex selection as an idea that reinforces sexual discrimination. As a result, human dignity is viewed as a situation where a certain gender is prevented from existing and the action is perceived to be justifiable because most people have not been victims of this cruelty. Therefore, individuals created by choice have do not have a reason to complain.
In spite of the reasons that seek to justify sex selection, it is considered to undermine human dignity; thus, causing harm to the wider society. Sex selection has often led to gender disparities in many countries especially in Asian countries such as China and India. This trend has led to patriarchal societal agreements perceived to discriminate girls and women (Mudde, 2010).
The social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective
Due to advanced technology, sex selection culture has become popular and this has had a negative impact on females. Parents who are able to access technology have the ability of controlling the sex of their children; hence, they are able to escape the societal stigma of failing to give birth to a son. Many parents avoid giving birth to girls since they are viewed as individuals not worth living .Parents perceive that sex selection gives them the ability to choose what type of children they want in terms of sex. However, this process equates children to products (Webb, 2014).
Sex selection can make parents not to accept some of their shortcomings; hence, lowering the child’s self esteem. Having a strong preference for a specific sex can cause harm for the unwanted sex including rejection and killings to avoid societal blames and eliminate shame. However, proponents of this idea argue that it is normal for such ideas to be rejected at the first instance especially when people are unfamiliar with the idea.
Those opposing the idea of sex selection argue that that having children is not a right that one can put conditions to as children should be viewed as gifts from God (De Melo-Martín, 2013). These arguments are based on our cultural beliefs.
According to Caulfield & Brownsword (2012), traditional patterns of giving gifts recommend that a gift should be taken without putting any condition to it. A gift is something should be accepted unconditionally and the same case applies to children. From a cultural perspective, sex selection promotes the idea of treating children as a commodity, which is more or less similar to buying and selling of children. Choosing some of the features one wants is acceptable only to products like cars or other commodities, but this concept does not apply to human beings. Therefore, sex selection is often used to discriminate a specific gender.
Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity
Proponents of sex selection argue that everyone has the right to live his life as he pleases so as long as the person does not cause harm or infringe upon other peoples’ rights. The harm principle implies that individuals opposing sex selection need to prove that the action is going to cause harm to others. In this case, sex selection does not cause harm to anybody. Proponents of sex selection argue that the practice is considered harmful based on sociological and psychological assumptions .They further argue that sex selection is an act that is contrary to religious or moral beliefs (Smolin, 2013).
A report by The Task Force on ethics and laws highlights the common objection arguments used to reject the idea of sex selection. The report indicates that sex selection is compared to mocking God. However, such arguments have been applied to all medical innovations. . It started by rejecting the use of chloroform to relieve pain associated with childbirth. This act was viewed as going against God’s will. Such arguments also applied to the use of inoculation (Li & Pantano, 2013).
Ironically, previous medical innovations viewed as going against God’s will have become part of acceptable medical practices; hence, such objections have not been taken seriously. In fact, such arguments are considered as religious claims .Proponents of sex selection argue that individuals should only refrain from the idea if it contravenes their religious beliefs, but laws should not be imposed on people based on other people’s religious views (Dondorp et al, 2013).
Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective
Defining human dignity based on our expression of choices affects public opinion about such ideas. If these perspectives are not comprehensively analyzed through research, public opinion will be flawed. The main concern is that people can use limited philosophical analysis to influence policy discussions .
The definition of human dignity should not be derived from the fact that it is an individual choice, but the practice should be viewed from both public and professional bioethical discussions as recommended by Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproduction (Medicine, 2015).
Human dignity as a societal inherent value
In the second perspective, it is worth noting that the society often values children’s inherent worth. This limits some of the parents’ choices regarding gender selection. Parents who consider gender selections are said not to uphold societal norms and values which is the societal description for human dignity. According to McGowan & Sharp (2013), parents who select their children’s sex because of non-medical reasons are considered to be immoral in the eyes of the society.
From this perspective, human dignity is viewed as pride in oneself or having the sense of self worth as a human being to live a meaningful life .Therefore, any situation that compromises or humiliates this position is considered as a threat to human dignity. Choosing a particular gender over the other for non-medical reasons places expectations on a specific child, and this fails to recognize the personhood of an individual.
Therefore, sex selection fails to adhere to individual inherent characteristics .Children are often viewed as their parent’s property yet they are their own person .Putting too much expectations on the selected children does not give them the respect they deserve; hence, making them not to be autonomous as human beings are supposed to be (Claassens et al., 2013).
Parents who select the sex of their children view their children as a different person instead of the individual the child is suppose to be. Wudarczyk et al (2013) argues that choosing the sex of a child is failing to respect the human intrinsic values of the individual child. In summary, children need to be valued based on their intrinsic worth as human beings. In other words, the values of children should not be attached to specific characteristics.
Social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective
In western societies, there is no preferred sex, but selection of sex is based on creating gender balance in the family by having both boys and girls. These common occurrences are observed in Australia, Sweden, and the UK. Even though sex selection does not have negative effects in these countries, Asian countries like China, Korea and India are faced with challenges associated with sex selection due to cultural beliefs. These countries prefer boys to girls and this has led to more than 10 million abortions within the last 20 years (Moskovian, 2013).
Activists in Asia are calling for the ban of sex selection. However, due to the different reasons parents in the UK and India have for choosing the sex of their children, banning sex selection which is a worldwide practice will not change the situation especially in India. So long as there are religious and economic incentives attached to boys, banning sex selection will not have any effect especially in Asian countries.
Given the fact that majority of UK population would still prefer their first children to be boys, sex selection technology will be misused to fulfill desires of these parents. In Asian countries, banning sex selection will not change the cultural norms being practiced in these regions (Dyal, 2014).
Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity
There are claims doing rounds that sex selection does not promote the inherent human value, and this is considered as an intuitive reaction, but not a reasonable moral response. The fact that certain human actions are unnatural does not necessary make these actions morally wrong. For example, heart transplant is unnatural but it is meant to save human life (De Melo-Martin, 2013).
The fact that those opposed to the claims that selection of sex should be applicable for medical purposes are not considerate to the fact that medical technologies helps couples with sex-linked genetic disorder to bear a healthy child. This does not translate to misuse of technology to fulfill their personal desires. Furthermore, those in support of sex selection argue that this practice eliminates girls in a humane way as compared to other methods like abortion or neglect, meaning that girls whose birth can be avoided will not be exposed to oppression or discrimination (Tregenza-Parker, 2013).
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In the current health care systems, physicians provide services that do not have direct medical benefits, but add value to individuals who seek for such services like cosmetic surgeries and ultrasound. The same view is applicable when it comes to sex selection. Offering sex selection services is also viewed as misuse of limited medical resources, but offering other services like face-lifts is not considered as s misallocation of limited medical resources. According to WHO Press (2011), the idea of sex selection has been misrepresented in most cases.
The most common argument is that sex selection causes social imbalances of sexes in India and China. The concern whether sex ratio is a threat to the western societies is more of a intuitive reaction devoid of concrete evidence .The idea of calling sex selection a sexist sin is not justifiable because most parents who prefer choosing the sex of their children do so based on the fact that they are motivated by the idea of having children from both sexes. People who believe that raising a boy is different from a girl are those who base their thinking on cultural values of children whereby girls are considered to be different from boys (Cooley &Chesnokova,2011).
Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective
The facts that arguments against sex selection are more about their consequences, these arguments are based on assumptions; hence, it is not easy to prevent some of the consequences from happening. It is not essay to draw legal lines to permit some forms of sex selection while limiting others. The main worry in such a situation is how parents are likely to spend their money on technology to ensure that their children are born with the specifications they want.
This can often lead to misuse of technology. The other concern is that if sex selection is acceptable, it will make one sex preferable than the other. As a result, it will make it hard to promote anti-discriminatory measures in several countries (Lee, 2016).
Conclusion
It not surprising that sex selection is controversial. , Different people justify their reasons for gender selection viewing it as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill societal norms. Others view sex selection as a practice that reinforces discrimination while at the same time it goes against the inherent nature of human value. These two perspectives can describe human dignity from different views.
The case study of sex selection helps us to understand some of the social attitudes, norms and circumstances that can influence our choices and how sex selection from these two perspectives can impact on our understanding of human dignity based on the justification presented in support of this action.
Some of the justifications presented in the essay are likely to influence the perception of individuals in understanding the meaning of human dignity; hence, influencing our actions. In conclusion, it is important to define human dignity from a multi-dimensional perspective as compared to defining it from isolated arguments to accurately establish its meaning.
References
Caulfield, T., & Brownsword, R. (2012). Human dignity: a guide to policy making in the Biotechnology era? Nature Reviews Genetics, 7(1), 72-76.
Chapman, A. R., & Benn, P. A. (2013). Noninvasive prenatal testing for early sex identification: A few benefits and many concerns. Perspectives in biology and medicine, 56(4), 530-547.
De Melo-Martín, I. (2013). Sex selection and the procreative liberty framework. KennedyInstitute of Ethics Journal, 23(1), 1-18.
Dondorp, W., De Wert, G., Pennings, G., Shenfield, F., Devroey, P., Tarlatzis, B., & Diedrich,
K. (2013). ESHRE Task Force on ethics and Law 20: sex selection for non-medical reasons. Human Reproduction, 28(6), 1448-1454.
Cooley, D. & Chesnokova, I. (2011). Sex Selection Abortion in Kazakhstan: Understanding a Cultural Justification, Developing World Bioethics 11, (3). 159–60.
De Melo-Martin, I. (2013). The Ethics of Sex Selection. Ethics and Emerging Technologies, 90.
Dyal, M. (2014). Whether sex-selection for non-medical reasons, using pre-implantation geneticdiagnosis, should be permitted in the UK. University of Birmingham.
Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2015). Use of Reproductive technology for sex selection for nonmedical reasons. Fertility and Sterility, 103(6), 1418-1422.
Kalfoglou, A. L. et al (2013). Ethical arguments for and against sperm sorting for non-medical sex selection: a review. Reproductive biomedicineonline, 26(3), 231-239.
Lee, M. Y. K. (2016). From the case of sex discrimination to the ideas of equality and equal opportunities. InEthical Dilemmas in Public Policy (pp. 111-127). Springer Singapore.
Li, Q., & Pantano, J. (2013). The Demographic Consequences of Gender Selection Technology. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 95, (5): 1549–1561.
McGowan, M. L., & Sharp, R. R. (2013). Justice in the context of family balancing. Science,Technology & human values, 38(2), 271-293. Current opinion in psychiatry, 26(5), 474.
Tregenza-Parker, G. (2013). Sex Selection for Family Balancing? A Legal and Ethical Analysis.
Smolin, D. M. (2013). Sex Selection, the Missing Girls of China and India, and the Challenges of Technological Control of Procreation. Regent JL & Pub. Pol’y, 6, 49.
Moskovian, A. (2013). Bans on Sex-Selective Abortions: How Far is Too Far?. HastingsConstitutional Law Quarterly, 40(2).
Mudde ,A. (2010).‘Before You Formed in the Womb I Knew You’: Sex Selection and Spaces of Ambiguity, Hypatia 25 (3).563–64.
Webb, D. C. (2014). The Sex Selection Debate: A Comparative Study of Sex Selection Laws in the United States and the United Kingdom. South Carolina Journal of International Lawand Business, 10(1), 6.
WHO Press (2011). World Health Organization, Preventing Gender-based Sex Selection: An Interagency Statement OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women and WHO. Geneva. WHO Press
Wudarczyk, O. A.et al (2013). Could intranasal oxytocin be used to enhance relationships? Research imperatives, clinical policy, and ethical considerations.
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The Effect of Leadership Styles on Staff Productivity
Abstract
This study sought to identify the types of leadership styles exhibited by management, the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, staff productivity and staff perception of leadership styles. The study will adopted a descriptive survey of non-experimental research design to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity. The study will rely on simple random and purposive sampling techniques in selecting a total of 120 respondents for the study.
The study will also expose that leaders who exhibited democratic (participative), people-oriented or transformational leadership characteristics for that matter, enhanced staff productivity. Leadership is a process influence between leaders and subordinates where a leader attempts to influence the behavior of subordinates to achieve the organizational goals. Organizational success in achieving its goals and objectives depends on the leaders of the organization and their leadership styles. By adopting the appropriate leadership styles, leaders can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
Background to the study
In recent times, organizations are going through dramatic changes, including flatter and looser structures, downsizing, and horizontal approaches to information flow. On the one hand, these changes are due to rapid technological developments, global competition and changing nature of the workforce. On the other hand, these organizational transformations and innovations are triggered by interventions such as total quality management and business process re- engineering.
Leadership is regarded as a critical factor in the initiation and implementation of the transformations in the organizations. In the past, leaders were identified, selected and installed based on the trait approach. The trait theory argues that leaders have certain personalities, social and physical characteristics, known as traits, which influence whether the person acts as a leader. Proponents of this view assert that qualities such as intelligence, knowledge and expertise, dominance, self-confidence, high energy, tolerance for stress, integrity and maturity were inborn.
The approach thus, rests on the assumption that some people were born to lead due to the presence of these qualities in them while others are not. This approach has witnessed a lot of criticisms from researchers and practitioners as a result of certain inconsistencies associated with it.
Effective leadership and employee job satisfaction are two factors that have been regarded as fundamental for organizational success. A capable leader provides direction for the organization and lead followers towards achieving desired goals. In similar vein, employees with high job satisfaction are likely to exert more effort in their assigned tasks and pursue organizational interests. An organization that fosters high employee job satisfaction is also more capable of retaining and attracting employees with the skills that it needs (Mosadegh Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006).
Several studies have also examined the relationship between the two factors and concurred that leadership has significant impacts on job satisfaction and organisational commitment (William & Hazer, 1986). High job satisfaction enhances employees’ psychological and physical wellbeing (Ilardi, Leone, Kansser, & Ryan, 1983) and positively affects employee performance (Vroom, 1964).
According to Mosadegh Rad and Yarmohammadian (2006), employee job satisfaction refers to the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organization which employs them. In particular, leaders within organizations can adopt appropriate leadership styles to affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here
Previous studies have examined the relationship between employee job satisfaction and leadership behavior in various settings such as healthcare, military, education and business organizations (Chen & Silversthorne, 2005). Consistent with this, the present study intends to examine the relationship between leadership styles, job satisfaction and in the public sector. Two types of leadership styles will be examined, namely, transactional and transformational leadership.
General Objective
The overall aim of the study is to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Specific objectives:
1. To determine the relationship between aspects of transactional leadership such as contingent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception with job satisfaction among employees.
Research Questions
What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
What is the type of leadership styles that exists in the chosen organization?
What is the impact of leadership styles on staff productivity?
What is the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction?
Significance of the study
The research will be of great value to firms that need to improve staff productivity and employee satisfaction The research will also be of benefit to the research community in by suggesting areas that scholars can venture into. Thus it will act as a background research for future studies.
Research methodology
This section will provide the process of collecting the, outline the research design and the population and sample of the study. Study parameters such as the study setting, the type of data to be collected, the time of conducting the study and the limitations of the study will discussed as well.
Research Design
This study is quantitative in nature and descriptive research will be used incorporating the case study design in the study. A case study is concerned with investigating a given phenomenon in great detail. The main reason behind using this design is to establish the extent to which the variables under study influence of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles.
The study will adopted descriptive survey for the data collection in order to answer the research questions because the researchers did not control factors that might influence the behavior and performance of subjects under study thereby reporting the outcome as they are (Smith, 1975).This study adopted qualitative method to assess the effects of leadership styles on staff productivity and employee satisfaction.
Target population
The target population will involve the total number of all units from in the organization. This study will be conducted among the various units of the institution where selected heads and other members of staff of were sampled to obtain in-depth data on how leadership style affected staff productivity and employee satisfaction.
Sample Size Determination
The target population will indicate above as 515 and a sample of 120 will be drawn for the study. The research will considered this sample size as a representation of the total population. Nwana (1992) suggests that if the population is a few hundred, a 40% or more sample size will do, if several hundred a 20% or more sample size will be suitable, if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do. Based on this criterion, 23.3% of 515 will equal to 120 and hence the sample size drawn for the study.
Procedure for Data Collection
The research will begin the study with a visit to all the various units and departments and also interacted with a number of staff. With this, the researcher will get to know members of staff well and better understood the institution and its structures. The objectives of the study will be made known to the respondents and also assured them of treating their information with utmost confidentiality. Assurances from a researcher to respondents of confidentiality of information being sought will make the interviewees more relaxed and open in their responses.
Data Presentation and Analysis
Computer data analyses software such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 17) and other relevant software such as Microsoft Excel were the main tools employed to analyze. The justification for the choice of these programs was that, these techniques facilitated word processing and data analysis very easy and accurate.
REFERENCES
Adair, J. (1973) Action-Centred Leadership. New York,: McGraw-Hill.
Archer, F. K., Adentwi, K. I.and Sam, F. K. (2008) Educational Management and School Administration: Ebens Press.
House, R. (1976) „A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership‟, in J.Hunt and L. Larson (eds)
Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J.(1989). Transformational versus transactional leadership: How they impact innovation, risk-taking, organization structure and performance. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington, DC.
Kilpatrick, S. And Locke, E. (1991) „Leadership: Do Traits Matter?‟ Academy of Management Executive Vol. 5 , No. 2, pp. 48-60.
Lewin,K., LIippit, R. and White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301.
Müller, R., and Turner, J. R.(2005). Cultural differences in project owner-manager communication. In D. P. Slevin, D.
Yammarino, F.J. and Dubinsky, A.J. (1994). Transformational leadership theory: using levels of analysis to determisne boundary conditions. Personnel Psychology, 47 (4), p. 787.
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Digital Marketing: Tool to Increase Hotel Awareness
Digital marketing is the process by which products, services or brands are advertised through one or more forms of electronic media. Unlike the old-style of marketing, this process consists of methods and strategies that allow an organization to evaluate marketing schemes and understand the approaches that work and what is not in real time. Digital marketers carefully observe how long and how often prospective customers visit the site.
The internet is the avenue that is closely related to digital marketing. However, digital marketing also involves the use of electronic billboards, digital television, radio channels, and mobile apps. Digital Marketing is important because most consumers spent more than half of the day online and they often use social media as a source of social interaction, entertainment, news, and shopping (Sas.com, n.d.).
Digital Marketing has some advantages. To begin with, it is a global platform – a website allows the business to find new target markets across the globe and be able to trade with other people even without seeing them. Second, it tracks and measures results – through the use of online metric tools, determining the number of buyers and consumers who visit the online website is easy. Therefore, the result or the statistics that can be drawn from the metric tools can be a useful measure to determine whether the company is reaching its targets and objectives.
Finally, it creates openness and personalisation. Social marketing and networking can help a company to build good relationships with their customers. Furthermore, digital marketing could rapidly increase the social awareness of a particular brand could (nibusinessinfo.co.uk, 2016).
Digital Marketing has been the primary tool of all industries – including hotels in the hospitality industry. The industry saw positive growth in 2015. With the continued progress, hotels are expected to use technology to increase the awareness of the market. The rise of millennial travelers as the dominant consumers in hotels has a growing interest in the usage of mobile devices and applications to look for more personalized hotel guest services (Hospitality Net, 2015). Therefore, it is important that Mobile Search is present in hotels.
The trend in Digital Marketing is the Mobile search. Research studies have established that three out of five individuals use mobile devices to explore and look for information, and 80% of local hunts are converted to purchases. It is worth noting that hotels have a website which is optimized for mobile search to enhance mobile traffic and ensure a full-bodied content that can be shared on social media. Also, sites should contain directory listings, maps, and local citations to strengthen the hotel’s local presence.
Engaging the customer through the content requires exciting local attraction, activities, visuals, and trending topics. Through the use of digital marketing tools which determine the time spent on a visited web page, hotels can identify the type of contents that should be enhanced to encourage customers to visit the website again. By doing this, a potential customer could buy products or services offered by the hotels (Blog.milestoneinternet.com, 2015).
Understanding the behavior of travelers would help to develop the digital marketing strategy of the hotel. The industry should realize that people are more interested in a business that knows their needs, provides a personalized and relevant communication and that which provides tailored preferences depending on their necessities. Therefore, it is essential that the company or hotel should update the content of their website based on the needs of the potential customers or travelers. This will help to attract more clients; thus, it will lead to more profit for the company (Sas.com, n.d.).
Hotels in the hospitality Industry should remember that brands will not exist without consumers patronizing on it. For this reason, the purpose of digital marketing is to build and increase brand awareness especially in remote hotels. The goal of the digital content marketing is to establish the hotel’s brand as attractive, valuable and trusted. The reason why digital marketing requires fresh and innovative content is to make sure that the brand message will not be overlooked.
It is necessary because nowadays high competition is very intense in the hotel industry. The high competition in the hotel industry is healthy because many search engines give rewards to those businesses that update the content of their sites with a higher ranking while silently punishing the stagnant websites with low organic rankings.
With this in mind, hotels can improve their websites in three simple ways. First, hotels should identify the interest of the travel enthusiasts’ and potential customers. Second, provide information that is relevant to their needs. Finally, provide them clients with an edge that will have value to them.
Though hotels can use the digital content marketing to showcase the new services and products, honesty and accuracy about the brand should be the primary core value. Digital content marketing allows the hotel to come up with a creative explanation on how they can address the needs of their customers. The content in websites should also indicate how the industry is established and the popularity of the business in the marketplace (Parker, 2016).
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a mathematical way of sorting out which variable has the most impact. It answers the questions of which variable matter most and how these variables interact with each other (Gallo, 2015). Regression analysis is used when we want to predict a continuous dependent variable from independent variables. After the collection of data (variables), all information will be relayed using a chart (Abrams, 2007).
The fundamental and the most common predictive analysis used is the Linear Regression analysis. The formula defines the basic form in one dependent and one independent variable:
y = β0 + β1x
Where y is the estimated dependent, β0 is constant; β1 is the regression coefficients, and x is the independent variable.
Regression analysis is often used in the casual analysis, the forecast of effect, and the trend of the forecast. To begin with, the casual analysis is used to determine the effect of the dependent variable to the independent variable. Second, forecast effects help the company to recognize the weight of result to the dependent variable change if there will be a change in one or more independent variables. Finally, forecasting the trend helps to point out the approximations where a typical question could be the price of X months from now (Statistics Solutions, 2013).
On the contrary, when conducting a hypothesis test, one is likely to come across two types of possible errors namely; Type I and Type II errors. The risks of these errors are determined by the level of significance and the power of the test. Therefore, it is important to identify which type of mistakes has more severe consequences.Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is correct, and it has been rejected.
The common mistake for this kind of error is when it is confused with statistical significance and practical significance. One should be cautious that a large sample size is more likely to detect a small difference. Hence, it is essential to consider practical importance when the sample size is large (Ma.utexas.edu, 2011). Conversely, when the null hypothesis is not correct, and it is not rejected it is often referred to as Type II error (Support.minitab.com, 2016).
Assumptions of Regression
Some statisticians believed that when a statistical process is not normally distributed, there is a mistake with the process, or the process itself is out of control. A chart can be used to determine when the process is non-normal so that statisticians can make corrections and return it to normality. Many procedures do not follow the normal distributions. Some of the examples include cycle time, customer waiting time, shrinkage et cetera (Isixsigma.com, 2016). In line with this, content validity is concerned with sample-population representativeness such as knowledge and skills (Yu, 2012).
Linear regressions require at least two variables of metric scale. The rule of regression analysis is that it has to have at least twenty cases per independent variables in the analysis. Regression has four assumptions. First, it should be linear such that there should be a relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The use of scatter plot can be used to test this assumption. Second, all variables have to be multivariate normal as required in the regression analysis.
This assumption can be tested through the utilization of a fitted normal curve or a Q-Q plot and a histogram. Third, the analysis agrees that multicollinearity is not in the data. It happens when no dependence occurs among independent variables. Finally, auto correlation is expected to be less in the data of regression analysis. The auto correlation exists when there is no reliance on the residuals (Statistics Solutions, 2016).
The following will provide different formula with the corresponding variance of returns:
Beta value is a measure of how strong one stock responds to the systematic instability of the whole market. 1 Beta occurs when the stock reacts to the uncertainty of the market with the market on average.
Yi=α+βXi+εi
On the other hand, correlation coefficient should be between -1 and 1. Where -1 means that the market and the stock move in the opposite directions. On the other hand, 0 means that the market and the stock do not have a relationship with the movement. Lastly, 1 implies that the market moves along with the stock.
β^=cor(Jixi)⋅SD(Yi)SD(Xi)
Both will tell the strength of the linear relationship between Xi and Yi. However, they always provide distinct information. The correlation provides a restricted measure that can be understood independently of the scale of the two variables. On the other hand, Beta gives a useful quantity construed as the predicted change in the expected value of Yi for a particular value of Xi (Stats.stackexchange.com, 2012)
The R-squared is a measure used to identify how to close the data to the fitted regression line. R-squared is always between 0 and 100%. It is defined as the variable response variation’s percentage explained in a linear model.
The zero percent (0%) happen when there is none of the variability of the response data is around its mean. On the other hand, the 100% pertains when all its variability of the response data is around its mean. However, there is a question often asked on what should be the good value for R-squared or how big does R-squared is required for the regression model to be valid and reliable. It would be advisable to look at adjusted R-squared rather than R-squared (People.duke.edu, n.d.).
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Based on the result of the data from SPSS, R-squared is .145 or 14.5%. The adjusted R-squared is .139 or 13.9%, is just almost the same percentage of the R-squared pertaining to the mean square of regression which is 13.352. Since the R-squared is relatively low; the model proposed is not possible or fitted based on the data provided.
Moreover, the probability of examining the observed results when the question is valid from the null hypothesis is called the calculated probability or the P-value. The P is defined as rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (Statsdirect.com, 2016). The one-sided P-value is only used when an unexpected direction from a significant change makes no relevance to the study. To connect with the hypothesis, the P-value is used to specify a probability which is adopted to calculate after a particular study, and the level of significance pertains to a pre-chosen likelihood.
Analysis
The increase of hotel awareness in relation to the data presented varies on the result of each of every variable in the calculation. The Pearson correlation of Y2_spc_brecal shows a positive 1.000 correlation. Moreover, the Pearson Correlation of X2_spc_person shows a positive .381 correlation. These values indicate that the variables in the data move in tandem since both are positive. As one variable increases, other variable increases, and vice versa. The table below shows the correlations between the variables.
The model summary of the result emphasized that R-squared is .145, or a 14.5%, and the adjusted R-squared is .139 or 13.9%. The result indicates that the model is not fitted because R-squared and adjusted R-squared are both low. The Standard Error of the Estimate is an estimate whether the prediction is accurate or not. In regression line, when the standard error of the estimate is small, the prediction tends to be accurate. Based on the result, it shows that the Standard Error of the Estimate is .737 or 73.7% which is obviously high. It means that the prediction is not accurate.
Marketing Hypotheses Analysis
There are several hypothesis that can be drawn in marketing but the most common and essential hypothesis is that digital advertising can directly enhance brand recall and recognition. The two (brand recall and brand recognition) are an entirely different thing. Though, there would be no brand recall without brand recognition. Remembering and recognizing a brand plays a critical role in attracting more buyers to stay firm in the brand of a certain product and buy them continually.
There are ways to study if a purchaser will select a product because of brand recall or brand recognition. For an instance, a brand recognition may occur when a customer watches movies or televisions where the advertisement of a product is placed. When a buyer knows the presence of a product through the online ads, the internet, or television, he/she will be aware of the product and subconsciously her/his brain will look for that brand and instantly decide to buy the product. Hence, digital marketing helps increase the recognition of a particular product/brand.
Another hypothesis could be brand recall can be improved through personalization in digital marketing. In a simple definition, personalization is the delivery of messages or experiences to a consumer based on the info about a particular person. Some terms that could describe digital personalization are data management platform (DMP). It is a database that saves consumer info which can be shared with other media like the website, email channel, applications and dynamic creative optimization (DCO), the technology that is utilized to modify sending messages from DMP data (Diamond, 2015).
There is two new development in digital personalization. The first pertains to the customers. It is said that consumers have changed as well as their demands. A brand gathers customer’s data with the conjecture that the info will be applied to add worth or value to a consumer’s experience. The anticipation of pertinent and personalized brand collaborations will progress as businesses keep on making more investments human capital and customer-focused technology.
The second development is the technology needed for integrating personalization in digital marketing stratagems which are more accessible to product trademarks. Currently, marketers have the tools to gather info wherein they can precisely reach the clients and prospects. It helps increase the effectivity and efficiency of their campaigns through digital marketing (Diamond, 2015).
In relation to the hotel industry, the hypotheses discussed are relevant in a sense that customers always rely based on the experience of other people. For example, if a traveler wants to stay in a particular place, he/she will browse the internet to see the different hotels and its reviews. He/she will read the experiences of the other people who stayed in the hotel. If the rating of a hotel is high or has excellent reviews, the probability of a potential customer to stay in that hotel is very high. Also, recognition and recall of a hotel’s name are crucial in the preferences of the client to stay in a hotel.
Table 3. Hypothesis and Its Correlation
Hypothesis
Correlation
Hypothesis 1: Digital Advertising can directly enhance brand recall and recognition
Based on the SPSS result there is a significant correlation between digital advertising and brand recall of because its regression result which is .416 is above 0.05 level.
Hypothesis 2: Engagement in digital marketing with interactive media programming and value content can increase brand recognition and brand recall.
Hypothesis 3:Positive and neutral value added UGC is valuable in affecting brand recall in digital marketing.
Hypothesis 4: Brand recall can be improved through personalization in digital marketing
Hypothesis 4: Brand recall can be improved through personalization in digital marketing
Hypothesis 5:Brand awareness can be increased by influence in digital marketing
Hypothesis 6: Digital advertising can increase brand recall.
Hypothesis 7: Digital personalization can increase brand recall.
Hypothesis 8: Digital influence can increase brand recall. Hypothesis 9: Digital user-generated-content can increase brand recall
Hypothesis 10: Digital engagement can increase brand recall.
Conclusion
It is evident that Digital Marketing and Social media are having a substantial impact on how customers behave. With the use of technology, hotels can take advantage of the growing online spending and Smartphone technologies. Through the use of social media and mobile marketing strategies, hotels can increase the awareness of brands in the hospitality industry since prospective customers spend most of the time using different social media tools.
Travel enthusiasts and other potential customers will be provided with direct reservations using the booking software hotels continue to embrace the idea of digital marketing.Through the use of regression analysis, hotels in the hospitality industry would be able to determine the behaviors of the travelers. Moreover, this will allow hotels to identify how they can provide full-bodied information to engage customers and lead them through finalizing their purchase.
Ma.utexas.edu. (2011). Type I and II Errors. [online] Available at: https://www.ma.utexas.edu/users/mks/statmistakes/errortypes.html [Accessed 26 May 2016].
The Influence of Leadership Styles on Employee Satisfaction and Productivity
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Abstract
This study sought to identify the types of leadership styles exhibited by management, the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles. The study will adopted a descriptive survey of non-experimental research design to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity. The study will rely on simple random and purposive sampling techniques in selecting a total of 120 respondents for the study.
The study will also expose that leaders who exhibited democratic (participative), people-oriented or transformational leadership characteristics for that matter, enhanced staff productivity. Leadership is a process influence between leaders and subordinates where a leader attempts to influence the behavior of subordinates to achieve the organizational goals. Organizational success in achieving its goals and objectives depends on the leaders of the organization and their leadership styles. By adopting the appropriate leadership styles, leaders can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
Background to the study
In recent times, organizations are going through dramatic changes, including flatter and looser structures, downsizing, and horizontal approaches to information flow. On the one hand, these changes are due to rapid technological developments, global competition and changing nature of the workforce. On the other hand, these organizational transformations and innovations are triggered by interventions such as total quality management and business process re- engineering.
Leadership is regarded as a critical factor in the initiation and implementation of the transformations in the organizations. In the past, leaders were identified, selected and installed based on the trait approach. The trait theory argues that leaders have certain personalities, social and physical characteristics, known as traits, which influence whether the person acts as a leader. Proponents of this view assert that qualities such as intelligence, knowledge and expertise, dominance, self-confidence, high energy, tolerance for stress, integrity and maturity were inborn.
The approach thus, rests on the assumption that some people were born to lead due to the presence of these qualities in them while others are not. This approach has witnessed a lot of criticisms from researchers and practitioners as a result of certain inconsistencies associated with it.
Effective leadership and employee job satisfaction are two factors that have been regarded as fundamental for organizational success. A capable leader provides direction for the organization and lead followers towards achieving desired goals. In similar vein, employees with high job satisfaction are likely to exert more effort in their assigned tasks and pursue organizational interests. An organization that fosters high employee job satisfaction is also more capable of retaining and attracting employees with the skills that it needs (Mosadegh Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006).
Several studies have also examined the relationship between the two factors and concurred that leadership has significant impacts on job satisfaction and organisational commitment (William & Hazer, 1986). High job satisfaction enhances employees’ psychological and physical wellbeing (Ilardi, Leone, Kansser, & Ryan, 1983) and positively affects employee performance (Vroom, 1964).
According to Mosadegh Rad and Yarmohammadian (2006), employee job satisfaction refers to the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organization which employs them. In particular, leaders within organizations can adopt appropriate leadership styles to affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
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Previous studies have examined the relationship between employee job satisfaction and leadership behavior in various settings such as healthcare, military, education and business organizations (Chen & Silversthorne, 2005). Consistent with this, the present study intends to examine the relationship between leadership styles, job satisfaction and in the public sector. Two types of leadership styles will be examined, namely, transactional and transformational leadership.
General Objective
The overall aim of the study is to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Specific objectives:
1. To determine the relationship between aspects of transactional leadership such as contingent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception with job satisfaction among employees.
Research Questions
What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
What is the type of leadership styles that exists in the chosen organization?
What is the impact of leadership styles on staff productivity?
What is the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction?
Significance of the study
The research will be of great value to firms that need to improve staff productivity and employee satisfaction The research will also be of benefit to the research community in by suggesting areas that scholars can venture into. Thus it will act as a background research for future studies.
Research methodology
This section will provide the process of collecting the, outline the research design and the population and sample of the study. Study parameters such as the study setting, the type of data to be collected, the time of conducting the study and the limitations of the study will discussed as well.
Research Design
This study is quantitative in nature and descriptive research will be used incorporating the case study design in the study. A case study is concerned with investigating a given phenomenon in great detail. The main reason behind using this design is to establish the extent to which the variables under study influence of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles.
The study will adopted descriptive survey for the data collection in order to answer the research questions because the researchers did not control factors that might influence the behavior and performance of subjects under study thereby reporting the outcome as they are (Smith, 1975).This study adopted qualitative method to assess the effects of leadership styles on staff productivity and employee satisfaction.
Target population
The target population will involve the total number of all units from in the organization. This study will be conducted among the various units of the institution where selected heads and other members of staff of were sampled to obtain in-depth data on how leadership style affected staff productivity and employee satisfaction.
Sample Size Determination
The target population will indicate above as 515 and a sample of 120 will be drawn for the study. The research will considered this sample size as a representation of the total population. Nwana (1992) suggests that if the population is a few hundred, a 40% or more sample size will do, if several hundred a 20% or more sample size will be suitable, if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do. Based on this criterion, 23.3% of 515 will equal to 120 and hence the sample size drawn for the study.
Procedure for Data Collection
The research will begin the study with a visit to all the various units and departments and also interacted with a number of staff. With this, the researcher will get to know members of staff well and better understood the institution and its structures. The objectives of the study will be made known to the respondents and also assured them of treating their information with utmost confidentiality. Assurances from a researcher to respondents of confidentiality of information being sought will make the interviewees more relaxed and open in their responses.
Data Presentation and Analysis
Computer data analyses software such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 17) and other relevant software such as Microsoft Excel were the main tools employed to analyze. The justification for the choice of these programs was that, these techniques facilitated word processing and data analysis very easy and accurate.
REFERENCES
Adair, J. (1973) Action-Centred Leadership. New York,: McGraw-Hill.
Archer, F. K., Adentwi, K. I.and Sam, F. K. (2008) Educational Management and School Administration: Ebens Press.
House, R. (1976) „A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership‟, in J.Hunt and L. Larson (eds)
Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J.(1989). Transformational versus transactional leadership: How they impact innovation, risk-taking, organization structure and performance. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington, DC.
Kilpatrick, S. And Locke, E. (1991) „Leadership: Do Traits Matter?‟ Academy of Management Executive Vol. 5 , No. 2, pp. 48-60.
Lewin,K., LIippit, R. and White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301.
Müller, R., and Turner, J. R.(2005). Cultural differences in project owner-manager communication. In D. P. Slevin, D.
Yammarino, F.J. and Dubinsky, A.J. (1994). Transformational leadership theory: using levels of analysis to determisne boundary conditions. Personnel Psychology, 47 (4), p. 787.
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