To what extent is our understanding of organizations and management over the last 100 years applicable to the 21st century?
The understanding of organizations and management over the last 100 years applies to the 21st Century. The organization is a group of people who have a structured management system that directs them to pursue a common objective (Scott, and Davis, 2015, p. 45).
Notably, within that period of 100 years, many people attempted to provide relevant knowledge that could improve efficiency in organizations and management process.
In conclusion, the knowledge acquired concerning organizations and management over the last 100 years has a great impact on the 21st century. In the past, the team was not complex like today where the firm has many department and activities.
Organizations and management Case Anlysis
The management adapted new methods to comply with new changes in a firm. Therefore, that understanding of organizations and management has helped the teams in the current century (Bohari, Hin, and Fuad, 2017, p. 56). Managers to allocate enough resources depending on the nature of goals set. Also, the use of new technological methods can help the firm to perform and compete effectively in the market.
Total Quality management is a plan that makes the management to be focused on customers and improvement of processes. SWOT analysis should be completed to provide enough knowledge concerning internal and external factors of a firm. The understanding of organizations and management should be the base of bringing change in the firm. Management needs such understanding to develop effective strategies that may improve the performance of a team.
References
Bohari, A.M., Hin, C.W. and Fuad, N., 2017. The competitiveness of halal food industry in Malaysia: A SWOT-ICT analysis. Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 9(1).
Ozguner, Z. and Ozguner, M., 2014. A managerial point of view on the relationship between of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s dual factor theory. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 5(7).
Sallis, E., 2014. Total quality management in education. Routledge.
Sargeant, A. and Jay, E., 2014. Fundraising management: analysis, planning and practice. Routledge.
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Criminal Justice Workforce
Define Management, organization, and leadership
Management explains all activities involve in establishing an organizational strategy alongside the coordination of worker efforts to achieve its goals by using the available technological, human, natural, and financial resources. An organization describes a group of individuals having a specific objective. According to Basran et al. (2019), leadership is the act of motivating people towards accomplishing a common purpose. In the business environment, leadership is giving directions to employees and colleagues with the required strategy to meet company goals.
Criminal Justice Workforce
Roles of Manager and Leader in Criminal Justice Workforce
A manager executes duties including organizing, planning, directing, controlling, and staffing. These functions are necessary for the effective operation of a criminal justice workforce and achieving their goals. Planning is an essential step for establishing goals and strategies for the coordination of tasks. The organizing function determines the tasks to be completed, the method of execution, grouping the tasks, and areas where decisions are made.
Directing functioning is about giving directives and motivation of subordinates to achieve their objectives. In the criminal justice system, the leader sets the vision. When the team members understand the goals and vision of the criminal justice system, they are focused and understand the way their duties help to accomplish success. A leader also delegates tasks and ensures that everyone is on the same page. A leader is responsible for ensuring that all workers work towards ensuring that people receive justice and fairness.
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Criminal Justice Workforce
Need for Learning Organizations in Criminal Justice Workforce and Agencies
A learning organization has a learning culture that is vital for all criminal justice agencies. A learning culture explains where the organizational systems, practices, and values encourage and support both the organization and individual to increase competence, performance levels, and knowledge. In turn, it ensures the criminal organizations have continuous improvement and support the accomplishment of the agencies’ objectives, innovativeness, and ability to address changes.
A learning organization in the criminal justice system challenges workers to change their status quo, think critically, and ensure that the steam is not always stuck in its thinking approaches (Basran et al. 2019). Instead, it advocates for the creation of capacity and adaptability that is necessary for change. The criminal justice system is evolving, and new cases come up every day.
Technology has changed the landscape, and the way decisions are made. This explains why a learning organization must be in place. More specifically, a learning organization increases efficiency, productivity, and profit while also reducing employee turnover rates because it increases their satisfaction levels.
Criminal Justice Workforce
Different Generations in today’s changing criminal justice workforce and organization
A generation explains people who are born in a particular era and are defined by their age limitations. In the United States, there are four main generations in the workforce. These are the baby boomers, veterans, millennials, and the Generation X. in the modern-day criminal justice organizations, and each generation has its distinct trait, behavioral patterns, values, personalities, attitudes, and beliefs towards work.
The veterans are very loyal to their vocation, are highly dedicated, conformist, and security-conscious (Skibba, 2018). They have a strong dedication to teamwork and collaboration. Baby boomers work effectively and are optimistic, loyal to their employers, results-oriented, and self-reliant. They exert much effort into their personal life and work. When it comes to their leadership styles, they must be directed by their managers and follow a given chain of command.
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However, they hate changes in their companies and are not technologically updated. Independent needs often drive Generation X, and they dissent leaders. They are loyal to their employers and have strong technical prowess. They are also tech-savvy and very interested in their technologies and knowledge at work.
Generation Y is ready to work hard but are also collaborative and non-conformist (Vargas, 2016). They are always happy to be involved with a team, resilient to changes and can multi-task. Besides, they are also tech-savvy and still keep up with the modern trend, which is suitable for the criminal justice system.
What aspects of leadership and management would be successful with the different generations of the Criminal Justice Workforce?
Millennials are the workforce’s largest demographic, and their needs are driven by the desire to have fulfillment and purpose. Leaders must define all the roles that are assigned to the millennials based on their mission. The leaders must look at an individual holistically. Their concerns and needs outside work influence their work performances. Millennials also require employers to handle issues that impact their families, such as maternity and paternity leave and medical insurance (Hunt & Fitzgerald, 2018).
Baby boomers need servant leaders. This is because they are goal-oriented, loyal, and resistant to change. A servant leader will recognize all these aspects and understand the best way to cultivate and turn them into people who embrace change. Generation X and veterans require transformative leaders. These groups need leaders who can influence them about the need to adapt to the changing market trends, which they will follow without complaining. A transformative leader is not imposing. The age of the veterans needs a leader who understands the workers and not imposing himself on them.
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY is a relationship-based theory of leadership. LMX theory rests firmly on the assumption that leaders influence employees in their group through the quality of the relationships they develop with them (Juneja, 2015). One of the early findings of the LMX theory is that, leaders develop relationships of varying quality with their subordinates and such differentiation characterizes a wide majority of the work groups studied.
A high quality relationship is characterized by trust, liking, professional respect, and loyalty. They are characterized by the exchange of valued resources. In these relationships, leaders provide support, developmental opportunities, men- toring, and other benefits to the employee.
The provision of such resources results in a motivation to reciprocate to the leader on the part of members, by demonstrating behaviors such as loyalty and higher levels of voluntary behaviors. In other words, the relationship between high LMX quality and promanagerial and occasionally proorganiza- tional behaviors is frequently believed to be a sense of responsibility and high levels of devotion to the supervisor. Furthermore, there is a relationship between LMX quality and outcomes and the degree to which employees believe their leader’s promises will be kept (Hao, et al., 2019).
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
The theory states that all relationships between managers and subordinates go through three stages. These are Role-Taking, Role-Making and Routinization (Mindtools, n.d.). When team members initially join the group, they take on roles. Managers utilize this period to examine the talents and competencies of new employees. When new team members begin working on projects and responsibilities as part of the team, role-making happens.
As new team members adjust to their new roles, supervisors often want them to work hard, be loyal, and demonstrate trustworthiness (Mindtools, n.d.). According to the idea, managers classify new team members into one of two categories, in-group or out-group, during this period. If team members demonstrate loyalty, trustworthiness, and skill, they are placed in the In-Group (Mindtools, n.d.).
This group consists of the team members in whom the management has the most faith. In addition, this group receives additional one-on-one time with the manager. People in this category frequently share their manager’s attitude and work ethic. If team members break the manager’s trust or demonstrate that they are uninspired or inept, they are placed in the Out-Group (Gregersen, et al., 2016).
The work of this group is frequently limited and unchallenging. Out-group members have less access to the management and are less likely to be given opportunities for promotion. Routines between team members and their supervisors are created during the Routinization phase (Mindtools, n.d.). In-Group team members strive hard to keep their bosses’ goodwill by demonstrating trust, respect, empathy, patience, and perseverance. Members of the out-group may begin to resent or distrust their bosses (Mindtools, n.d.).
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
One of two metrics is used in most empirical studies on LMX theory. The LMX-7 is a single-dimensional scale with seven components (Martin, et al., 2017). The LMX-Multidimensional is made up of 12 components namely affect, loyalty, contribution, and professional respect, each of which captures three dimensions. Many researchers prefer to collapse the dimensions since the multidimensional measure is made up of highly linked dimensions that lie under a second-order component.
Another prevalent trend in LMX research is to assess LMX quality via the eyes of the employee. Correlations are usually minimal when LMX is measured from the perspective of members and leaders. Furthermore, during the early phases of a relationship’s growth, the correlation is less, and the overlap grows as time passes the lack of agreement could be explained by a number of different mechanisms (Gooty & Yammarino, 2016).
When employees and managers are asked how much they like, respect, and feel loyal to one other, it’s only natural that their responses differ. Second, in their relationship, each individual may have varying degrees of success in satisfying the expectations of the other. Third, due to social desirability concerns, leaders may be less inclined to disclose a poor-quality conversation with a team member. Finally, some of the poor correlations reported might be due to the measuring method (Gooty & Yammarino, 2016).
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Member performance and competence appear to be important predictors in the LMX development process as these are helpful behaviors in establishing trustworthiness (Erdogan & Bauer, 2015). When the relationship begins, trust develops as a result of a mutual testing process. Employee’s satisfactory responses to the testing efforts of leaders result in the development of trust on the part of the leader.
In addition to member performance and similarity to leaders, member personality has been frequently examined as a predictor in cross-sectional work (Erdogan & Bauer, 2015). Meta-analytic results revealed that following member competence and perceived similarity, member positive affec- tivity and the locus of control are the characteristics with the strongest correlations to LMX quality (Martin, et al., 2015).
Furthermore, goal orientation has been explored as an antecedent. Mastery orientation, which refers to the degree to which a person is interested in acquiring new skills, improving and learning, has been shown to be positively related to LMX quality, whereas performance orientation, which refers to the degree to which the person is preoccupied with looking like a high performer and being evaluated well, has been negatively related (Martin, et al., 2015).
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
The way that leaders develop different quality relationships with members of their team has been referred to as the LMX differentiation process (Anand, et al., 2015). LMX differentiation is defined as a process by which a leader, through engaging in differing types of exchange patterns with subordinates, forms different quality exchange relationships with them. LMX differentiation does not refer to the mean LMX quality in the team, but to the extent that there are differences in LMX quality within the team (Anand, et al., 2015).
Although LMX differentiation refers to the process by which leaders develop different quality relationships with each team member, the results of that process will be differentiation patterns of LMX quality between team members. Three main properties of the differentiation process pattern that can be identified and assessed include central tendency, variation, and relative position (Cobb & Lau, 2015).
The first property of the differentiation process concerns the within‐team central tendency, which is normally assessed as the team mean or median score. Although most research has examined the mean, some argue that the median is a better indicator of aggregation because it represents the middle person in the team while the mean might not correspond to any team member (Cobb & Lau, 2015).
There are two dimensions to LMX variation: dispersion which is the amount of spread of LMX between team members and distribution shape, the pattern of LMX within the team. The third property of the LMX differentiation process refers to the within‐team relative position or location of each team member’s LMX quality with respect to other members of the team who are managed by the same leader. It the relative standing of a team member’s LMX compared to other team members (Cobb & Lau, 2015).
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It is important to note that the presence of LMX differentiation increases the salience of fairness concerns. Studies on LMX differentiation highlight the importance of employee awareness of how LMXs are distributed within the group. Employees react not only to their own relationship quality, but also to their coworkers’ relationship quality, and distribution of LMXs matter.
Taking this idea a step further, scholars also started investigating social comparison processes directly, by introducing the concept of relative LMX. Relative LMX is a statistical computation of the degree to which a person’s LMX quality is higher or lower than the team’s LMX average. Utilizing a social comparison approach, scholars argued that having a higher-quality exchange compared to one’s team members is a source of satisfaction.
Controlling for one’s LMX quality, relative LMX is positively related to self- efficacy, performance, citizenship behaviors, and psychological contract fulfillment. In addition to examining relative LMX operationalized as the difference between focal person’s LMX score from the group mean, researchers developed a perceptual measure of relative LMX, directly asking individuals to compare their own rela- tionship quality to the other relations the leader develops with team members.
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
Investigations of the nomological network of LMX quality are numerous and this is a mature field of investigation. Yet, there are still research avenues that are important to investigate. One issue is the evolving nature of organizations. LMX theory originated in the 1970s, at a time organizations were charac- terized by tall hierarchies, unity of command, and authority concentrated more at the top (Chen, et al., 2018).
Today, while such organizations continue to exist, there are more novel and contemporary structures under which managers and employees develop relationships. For example, in many contemporary organiza- tions, employees may report to more than one manager, whereas LMX theory is based on the assumption that each member has one, clearly identifiable manager who controls resources valued by the member (Chen, et al., 2018).
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Recent research (Vidyarthi, et al., 2018) has examined LMX relationships in such a context and showed that in a sample of information technology consultants reporting to two managers, convergence of the quality of these relationships was associated with more positive outcomes. The authors con- tended that each LMX relationship would serve as a compar- ison point for the other relationship, evoking social comparison processes.
In other words, similar to the comparisons employees engage in with their coworkers’ LMXs, it seems that they also compare the multiple exchanges they have with different leaders in their work lives (Vidyarthi, et al., 2018). Such findings indicate that LMX theory would benefit from an extension and testing of the theory in settings that are different from the traditional orga- nizational forms.
As organizations introduce matrix structures where members report to multiple leaders for finite periods of time, or when they eliminate managers by introducing lattice organizations where there are no assigned leaders, the utility of the theory remains unclear. Extension of LMX theory to contemporary organizational structures is an important future direction.
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A second research direction relates to an examination of LMX quality in relation to coworker relationships (Wang, et al., 2018). We know that LMX quality is associated with positive job attitudes and behaviors. However, we know significantly less about when and why coworkers experience envy or jealousy, or feel nega- tively toward high LMX members. (Tse, et al., 2018) showed that the degree to which LMX quality is positively associated with one aspect of coworker relations is contingent on the degree to which high LMX members also demonstrate help- fulness and discretion.
Systematic investigation of the effects of LMX quality on coworker emotions, behaviors, and reactions to the focal person is a noteworthy area of research. The importance of this topic is also evidenced by the fact that the most recent meta-analysis in LMX theory (Martin, et al., 2016) includes relationships of LMX to a large number of outcomes, but any indicators of coworker relationships is curiously missing, which likely indicates the small number of studies examining LMX quality in relation to coworker relations.
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
In conclusion, while research on LMX has entered a mature phase where much is known about its measurement, anteced- ents, boundary conditions, and consequences, much also remains left to uncover. These include future understanding of how LMX relationships develop and the boundary conditions for relationship devel- opment, how LMX is measured, how relative LMX affects what we know, as well as the key future research themes of the changing nature of work in terms of content and organizational structures, the influence of the social network of relationships, as well as the dark side of LMX. Given these and other potential research questions, we are excited about the future of LMX as a vibrant research area.
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
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References
Anand, S., Vidyarthi, P. R. & Park, H. P., 2015. LMX Differentiation: Understanding relational leadership at individual and group levels.. new york: Oxford University Press.
Cobb, A. T. & Lau, R. S., 2015. In: Trouble at the next level: Effects of differential leader–member exchange on group-level processes and justice climate. s.l.:s.n., p. 1437
Chen, X. P., He, W. & Weng, L. C., 2018. What is wrong with treating followers differently? The basis of leader–member exchange differentiation matters. Journal of Management, Issue 44, pp. 946-971..1459.
Erdogan, B. & Bauer, a. N., 2015. The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange. New york: Oxford University press.
Hao, Q., Shi, Y. & Yang, W., 2019. How leader-member exchange affects knowledge sharing behavior: understanding the effects of commitment and employee characteristics.
Gregersen, S., Vincent-Höper, S. & Nienhaus, A., 2016. Job-related resources, leader–member exchange and well-being: a longitudinal study.. Work Stress, Issue 30, p. 356–373.
Gooty, J. & Yammarino, F. J., 2016. The leader–member exchange relationship: a multisource, cross-level investigation. J. Manage, Issue 42, p. 915–935.
Tse, H. H. M., Troth, A. C., Ashkanasy, N. M. & Collins, A. L., 2018. Affect and leader-member exchange in the new millennium: a state-of-art review and guiding framework.. p. 135–149.
Vidyarthi, P., Rolnicki, S. & Anand, S., 2018. Leader-member exchange and organizational citizenship behaviors: contextual effects of leader power distance and group task interdependence.. p. 489–500.
Wang, D., Gan, C. & Wu, C., 2018. LMX and employee voice: a moderated mediation model of psychological empowerment and role clarity.. p. 605–615.
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Psychological Foundation of Leadership
Identify ways that a leader could use symbolic acts to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration in the Psychological Foundation of Leadership.
and
Identify the qualities of a change leader. Also, explain how leaders can serve as role models for change. Question 1 –
Symbolic acts to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration. Teamwork and collaboration are vital components of successful businesses and alternative ventures. Insightful leaders understand the need for developing a culture and strengthening the value of teamwork in their followers. The use of symbolism is instrumental to the strengthening of the cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Symbolism involves the use of actions, objects, and events to convey a targeted meaning or impart a given sense or emotion in an individual or group of people (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2017; Sergiovanni & Corbally, 1986, pp. 112 – 113; Winkler, 2009). This section identifies and expounds on several acts by leaders that serve to strengthen a cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Open communications Many employees consider the leadership in a corporate environment as being unreachable. Such a notion may serve to erode a sense of teamwork in the employees since they may not feel like part of a team. To address such concerns, the leadership in an office and corporate setting should find ways to foster a sense of openness in the work environment.
This could include the use of open floor plans of office space, and the abolition of the bureaucratic chain of communication between employees and management (Ford & Sturman, 2011). Such actions represent an example of a symbolic act by the organization’s leadership to show an effort toward the improvement of communication as a tool to create a culture of teamwork and collaboration.
Psychological Foundation of Leadership
Unifying tasks A critical factor in the creation of a culture that fosters teamwork and collaboration in a harmonious environment is the ability to unify different people. However, the leadership in any organization can achieve this through the creation of tasks within the workplace that create a need to collaborate with other members of the team. A case example is a development of unifying tasks that require input from various members with different skills.
In such a scenario, the leaders would not create a team but instead allow the individuals assigned to the task to seek for and collaborate with other people to complete the task. In this way, therefore, the use of unifying tasks is a symbolic gesture by leaders to strengthen the cultural value of teamwork and collaboration.
Appraising the role of each The importance and success of any leader lie with the achievement of goals by the individual followers. In this light, therefore, it is essential that the leader provide sufficient motivation for the employees. Ford and Sturman (2011) maintain that instilling beliefs, values, and norms through laws, stories, and legends are imperative to teaching culture within an organizational setting. Besides, the creation of various rituals at the workplace ensures that the followers are informed on the culture and expect the leaders to operate in a given manner (pp. 115 – 119, 123 – 124).
Such rituals may include the appraising of the best performing individuals and groups. This creates a recurring act that fosters better work morale to ensure the followers, especially when operating in a group setting strive to outperform each other. Such appraisals, therefore, not only serve to create an ongoing culture in the organization, but also help to strengthen teamwork and collaboration.
Question 2 – Qualities of a change leader Emotional intelligence To spearhead change, a leader needs to have a high level of emotional intelligence. This involves the ability to judge and control their emotions as well as discern and use the emotions of other people. In this case, active change leaders can determine the emotion and moods of their followers and act suitably. Besides, a high emotional quotient can direct the moods of their followers to allow for the right attitudes and mood for the completion of a given task. A key factor is the ability to motivate people that they can succeed at the tasks assigned to them as well as their personal lives.
Psychological Foundation of Leadership
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Active listening, communication, and persuasion An effective change leader is one who understands the importance of efficiency in communication. A fundamental principle of communication in such a scenario is the ability to listen to the front line people. While most leaders shut out the opinions of frontline staff, change leaders use them as critical assets to learn about the various business metrics (Dallas, 2015). Change leaders should also be able to communicate their ideas effectively to other personnel, which is vital to the implementation of the needed change. The ability to persuade people and bring them on board to accomplish the laid out ideas is essential to change leaders since not every individual is convinced of the need to change (Gleeson, 2016).
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Knowledge Fostering change requires adequate knowledge in the current situation, as well as the intended outcomes from the change process. Therefore, it is crucial that a change leader is knowledgeable in addition to being a seeker of information. This level of knowledgeability should not be limited to the areas of concern or operation but should be as diverse as possible. The diversity of knowledge for a change leader allows for the adoption of new skills and strategies that are applicable in their areas, which leads to growth and the achievement of the required changes. Psychological Foundation of Leadership
Accountability Change agents are responsible for not only the achievement of the required change but also for the various personnel and resources tasked under their administration. As such, a change leader requires a high level of accountability. They should be accountable for the timelines to achieve the set goals, maintaining communications and partnerships, and motivation levels among the followers among other such factors. In the same way, the change leaders demand a high level of accountability from their peers and subordinates (Rylatt, 2013)
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How leaders can serve as role models for change An effective change leader can serve as an example to their team as well as to other leaders. Among the ways one can serve as a role model for change is to align their words with their actions. Another is practicing self-reflection to exercise similar standards for themselves, as they demand of other people in their teams.
Establishing clear communication of requirements and goals is essential to a successful leader and is an admirable trait. Finally, the leader should show a sense of selfless empathy by being considerate of the needs and well-being of others beyond the task. With such approaches, the leader should have a presentable image that others can emulate.
Ford, R., & Sturman, M. C. (2011). Harnessing the Power of Your Culture for Outstanding Service. In J. B. M. C. Sturman (Ed.), The Cornell School of Hotel (pp. 111 – 126 ). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing.
Hambrick, D., & Lovelace, J. (2017). The Role of Executive Symbolism In Advancing New Strategic Themes in Organizations: A Social Influence Perspective. Academy of Management ReviewAcademy of Management Review, 1 – 53. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://amr.aom.org/content/early/2017/02/09/amr.2015.0190.full.pdf
Sergiovanni, T. J., & Corbally, J. E. (1986). Leadership and Organizational Culture: New Perspectives on Administrative Theory and Practice. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
