The organization of a successful mission demands proper planning and operation, and placing objectivity as key in the final triumph. The mission towards rescuing prisoners of war (POW) by the 6th Ranger Battalion will require movements and strategies that will reduce detection and provide faster accomplishment of the strategies. Therefore, having substantial estimates and technical strategies into the military action to take will result in successful mission.
Planning and Preparation
The POW camp is exactly 75 miles from Calasiao base camp where the rescued will be taken to. The mission will require a victory mentality that will utilize a surprise strategy to catch the enemy off guard and achieve a successful rescue (Goztepe & Kahraman, 2015). The problem faced by the 6th Ranger Battalion is the rescue of the POWs before they are executed or transported by the Japanese forces.
Any delay in time will aggravate the situation and make the mission more difficult. The mission will require rescuing the POWs and taking them to Guimba where they will link up with the 6th Army forward line that will provide extra security in their transportation to Calasiao base camp. The mission has to take place in less than two days to avoid more delays.
The Japanese might move or murder the POWs in less than three days time so the mission must take place in two days time. The set date to execution of the mission will be on the dawn of 30th January 1945, leaving less than 48 hours for planning. The planning process will require reconnaissance and surveillance of the prison, and linking up with local militia to provide adequate information.
The paramedics will need to prepare medical equipments, food, and water for the rescued and the wounded during the mission (Jaiswal, 2012). The planning process will require 12 hours and additional 4 hours for reconnaissance. The rescue mission should last for less than 2 hours.
In order to circumvent detection, the 6th Battalion will have to arrive at the POW camp at night and carry the rescue mission at dawn to catch the enemy by surprise. Since the prison is 29 miles from Guimba, the soldiers will require 15 hours to reach Pangatian by foot, which will require travelling at night, early mornings, and late evenings to avoid detection.
Therefore, in order to avoid fatigue and save time, the force shall leave Guimba on the night of 29th January 1945 at 2000hrs and take a half an hour journey by trucks to Cabanatuan where they will approach the prison at Pangatian by foot 3 miles from the prison. This will provide enough time to set up points for ambush, assembly of the rescued and coordination with the Filipino guerilla forces.
The Filipino guerillas will be important in provision of navigation routes and utilization of vantage points that will make infiltrating into the enemy camp easier; a beneficial factor in collaborating with local citizens (Jaiswal, 2012)). However, their next involvement will come after the rescue operation.
Executing the Mission
Since negotiation and diplomacy is not an option, carrying out military strategy in rescuing hostages requires staging a move that will result in higher success rate (Goztepe & Kahraman, 2015). In this mission, understanding of the POW compound in order to identify the first targets to annihilate, how to outdo the guards, reaching the cells where the POWs are and deterring any communication or escape of enemy soldiers to seek for reinforcement.
The objective of the mission apart from rescuing the POW will be to exert a surprising attack on the enemy that will result in the highest success rate and little casualties (Dougherty, 2013). This will depend on the surveillance received that informs the structure of the enemy territory and information to use in managing the mission. The force will need to site the target containing communication media and secure it before handling the enemy soldiers.
The Rangers will require vigilance and quick response to ensure the enemy does not kill the POWs as a form of defense, therefore capturing and securing the POW cells will be the first key strategy in the mission. The mission will also require use of snipers among the Rangers incase the enemy decides to use POW as human shields.
During the night, the task force should arrive at the prison before 0300 hours on 30th January 1945 and take vantage points around the camp. The US Army Air Corps helicopters can aid in expediting the mission by providing the first moment of surprise through destruction of any enemy vehicles and buildings used as resident by the guards at the top command.
This will allow the task force to infiltrate into POW cells and engage the enemy forces while leading the rescued away from the camps. The US Army Air Corps will be important in maintaining patrol and deterring any plans of the enemy to launch a counter attack to recapture the POWs. This will also allow the task force to gain ground faster as they repeal the enemy forces (Zsambok, 2014).
The Filipino guerillas will be important in helping to protect and secure routes used by enemy forces that may come to provide reinforcement. This will impede the enemy movement as the task force and rescued soldier match towards Cabanatuan for transportation to Guimba.
The task force and rescued soldiers will avoid using open roads that may increase their vulnerability to enemy forces but utilize the help of civilians in making their way by foot beyond Cabanatuan. The team will travel at 2 miles per hour for 4 hours and have 30 minutes of rest to allow the former POWs to take water and food. However, travelling to Guimba by foot will take the Rangers and rescued soldiers up to 15 hours, and may require more security and resources.
Another strategy will be the use of carts, which can be useful since it will increase the movement of the rescued soldiers. Carts move at 9 miles an hour, which will take just 3 hours to transport the rescued soldiers to Guimba from Cabanatuan, where they will link up with the 6th Army. Another alternative is picking up the rescued soldiers and Rangers at Cabanatuan by army trucks to Guimba, which is a faster alternative.
Collaborating with the Filipino civilians to provide this service will enable the task force acquire more time in repealing any remaining resistance from the enemy, assisted by the US Army Air Corps as a way of suppressing the enemy advancement and counterattack strategies.
Monitoring and Evaluation of the Decision
The movement of the Rangers from a drop point in Cabanatuan to Pangatian will require 1 hour. From there the Rangers will take positions outside the camp until 0430hrs on 30th January 1945, where the US Army Air Corps planes will provide the dawn ambush that will enable the Rangers to penetrate the camp and rescue the POW. Surprise attacks are effective in destabilizing the enemy and giving the advancing forces an upper hand (Dougherty, 2012).
The Mission should last for less than 2 hours. The former POWs and Rangers will have to advance to Cabanatuan and board army trucks by 1000hrs for their transportation to Guimba. Two US Army Air Corps helicopters will offer assistance to repeal enemy forces, exert destruction, and impede the enemy’s will to fight, while also providing humanitarian assistance. However, in case of overwhelming forces, more backup will have to come from Guimba.
This report will enable the Commander reach a decision on the possible choices to make in reaching a conclusion about the mission. It is imperative to consider time and speed since they are important in achieving the objectives of the mission.
Goztepe, K., & Kahraman, C. (2015, March). A new approach to military decision making process: suggestions from MCDM point of view. InInternational Conference on Military and Security Studies, İstanbul, Turkey(pp. 118-122).
Jaiswal, N. K. (2012). Military operations research: Quantitative decision making (Vol. 5). Springer Science & Business Media.
Zsambok, C. E., & Klein, G. (2014). Naturalistic decision making. Psychology Press.
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The community college sector is approaching its 70th anniversary of enactment by President Harry Truman and its 50th anniversary of becoming a viable sector of higher education. In achieving this milestone, research recognized maturation of leadership in the community college sector, and resultant impending retirements of a high percentage of those in leadership positions.
As noted by Lipka (2013), the American Association of Community Colleges projects that of approximately 1,200 community colleges in the United States, about 500 presidents are projected to retire in the next 5 years, creating a potentially serious void in leadership within this sector of higher education. Lack of leadership succession planning can be noted when one reads of an institution recognized as the exception because of its commitment to succession planning (Bornstein, 2010).
The responsibilities of the college president and all administrators in higher education have changed drastically in the past decade (Barden, 2009). Government regulations, the ever-expanding world of technology, and the global landscape have drastically changed the dynamics of the community college sector and its leadership (Adcock-Shantz, 2011).
The recent economic downturn and the mandates it has imposed on higher education present a vivid example of that change. With these challenges, the conventional path to the college presidency, progression from faculty member to dean and chief academic officer, does not automatically qualify a prospective successor to lead the modern community college (Barden, 2009).
Planning for and selecting the most appropriate new leadership can engender institutional renewal, strengthen the organization and enhance institutional goals to achieve its mission and vision (Mitchell, 2014). A multi-case study on leadership succession planning in community colleges is the focus of this proposed study. Because there is a noted scarcity of empirical research on community college leadership succession planning, this study will be undertaken to further that body of knowledge.
Community college enrollments account for more than 45% of those students in the United States experiencing their first postsecondary education (American Association of Community Colleges, 2013). Thus, strong leadership and succession planning to achieve that leadership are critical to the community college mission of student success.
Background of the Problem
Community colleges, a relatively unknown entity 50 years ago, have become a viable sector of higher education. Today, more than 45% of students in the United States start their college experience in community colleges with the hope to have access to success in their academic endeavors (American Association of Community Colleges, 2013). Regulatory directives have made a considerable impacton budgetary constraints, accreditation standards, curricula, instructional delivery, and student diversity (Adcock-Shantz, 2011).
In addition, community colleges face many administrative changes, including an expected deluge of presidential retirements over the next five years (Lipka, 2013). Confronted by increased enrollments, diminished state funding, accountability for student success, and increased public oversight, community colleges must restructure their praxes for preparing and appointing leaders to keep up with demand and heightened expectations (DeSantis, 2013).
The research literature is extensive with respect to leadership succession planning in the business sector. According to Deloitte (2014), “For a business, working without a succession plan can invite disruption, uncertainty, and conflict, and endangers future competition.” (p. 1). Such planning, particularly for those holding positions of Chairman of the Board, Chief Executive Officer, and Chief Financial Officer, is considered critical for successful business entities.
A well-reputed example of corporate succession planning can be seen in the approach taken by General Electric Company (GE). According to (Onatolu, 2013), GE’s philosophy to ensure long-term survival of the company is to have in place an organizational structure with a unique form of leadership succession plan that will be cognizant of organizational culture of GE.
Additionally, American Management Association (2010) addresses the importance of succession planning, noting that global demographics and multinational corporations are challenged with potential retirement of one in five senior executives in the Fortune 500. There is however a dearth of empirical research addressing such leadership succession planning in higher education, and more specifically, within the community college sector (Hammond, 2013).
Two decades ago, little significant strategic planning was generated in community colleges (Lipka, 2013). In this decade, leadership sustainability and strategic planning are major factors in the functionality of community colleges. The dynamics of formal leadership succession planning for those in leadership positions, i.e., Presidents, Vice Presidents, and Deans, is integral to such strategic planning and the future of community colleges in meeting 21st century commitment to student success.
As noted by Barden (2010), as the populace progresses and the requirements of the workforce are transformed, institutions of higher education may need to rethink the relationship between succession planning and organizational sustainability. Planning and choosing the right leadership are critical to sustain strong organizational structure and culture. Employee attrition can be predicted.
However, for leadership succession planning to be successful as a means by which to retain or grow talent, it must be a top priority of every organization‘s strategic agenda (Robinson, 2009). Such is the context in which this research is undertaken.
Conceptual Framework and Review of the Literature/Themes
Conceptual framework. This study will be informed by a model for succession planning and House’s (1996) path-goal theory. For the purposes of this study, succession planning will be defined as a process used to identify, prepare, and develop employees internal to an organization to meet an organization’s future talent needs (Rothwell, 2005).
There are a variety of succession planning models, but the attributes common to most include a systematic process implemented at all levels of an organization, employee opportunity for upward and lateral movement within the organization, rewarding leaders for promoting their best, talented employees (Rothwell, 2005). There are several steps to an effective succession plan.
These include conducting an assessment of organization’s needs, identifying the knowledge, skills and attributes of future leaders, identifying and assessing the talents of current employees, developing growth plans for employees interested in upward movement, implementing those growth plans with clear feedback and accountability requirements, and finally, evaluating the process (Neef, 2009).
Additionally, the path-goal theory of motivation will serve as a foundation for the study (House, 1996). This theory is based on the idea an employees will exert effort and performance based on their perceptions of a leader’s behavior. The goal of the leader is to communicate clear expectations, describe the path to achieving a goal and then to remove the obstacles for workers as they attempt to perform in an effort to achieve that goal or complete a task. Leaders provide information, support, and resources for employees to do their work.
Review of the literature themes.
Succession planning defined
Components of succession planning
Leadership styles and succession planning
Succession planning in community colleges
Leadership development in higher education
Strategic planning defined
Components of strategic planning
Relationship of strategic planning and succession planning
Research on succession planning in community colleges
Methodologies used in research on succession planning in community colleges
Problem Statement
It is not known how leadership succession planning is developed and executed in the community college sector in New Jersey. With anticipated high volume of retirements of those in leadership positions within the next decade, it is evident that community colleges need to develop and execute succession planning to safeguard institutional stability and learning.
According to the American Association of Community Colleges (2013), “community colleges are facing a wave of impending retirements among their CEOs. More than two-fifths of community college CEOs surveyed in 2012 indicated that they plan to retire within five years. About 75% plan to retire within 10 years.” Succession planning is critical because of the void created by promotion from within the institution to fill vacancies created by retirement, resignation, or discharge.
Organizational culture and structure are also key factors in leadership succession planning. Depending on the political climate of the institution, some look for innovation and major change that may favor consideration of external candidates for leadership (Katz, 2012), while other institutional structures may be deemed strong enough to effect leadership change with internal transparency (Kleinsorge, 2010). An institution’s resolve to commit to succession plans might encourage valued staff to remain with their current community college employer (Basham et al., 2009).
Research Question(s) and Phenomenon
Phenomenon. This study will focus on the importance of succession plans in community colleges. Leadership succession planning has been integral in the business world. The research addresses the significance of such practices in the academic environment while assessing the characteristics of organizational structures and respective stances on the importance of succession planning within the community college sector. According to Anderson (2013), tradition, dormant leadership cultures, and magnitude of the institution can be limiting factors to the process.
Bornstein (2010) posits that most college boards hesitate to change the status quo and recognize potential leaders who can be groomed for specific positions for fear that faculty will not support a selection process in which they have little or any input. Organizational climate may dictate a change in organizational structure or need for new vision to lead a troubled institution (Anderson, 2013). Adoption of a succession plan can have a major impact on the culture and structure of the organization.
Having stakeholders who know the intricacies and vision of the institution and who are willing to carry out succession planning builds a strong position for institutional sustainability (Rothwell, 2010). According to Bornstein (2010), succession planning can bring value if the institution remains open to new ideas, focuses on long-term goals as provided for in strategic planning, and practices high leadership standards.
Research Questions
R1: How does leadership within New Jersey community colleges plan for the succession of executive leadership positions?
R2: How do New Jersey community college leadership development programs align to succession planning?
R3: What organizational structure attributes promote succession planning in New Jersey community colleges?
R4: How does the community college’s shared governance structure influence succession planning?
Significance of the Study
A review of succession planning literature suggests a gap in succession planning research respective of the community college sector of higher education (Barden, 2009; Bornstein, 2010). As noted by Mercer (2009), comprehensive interviews are recognized as methodology that assists researchers in identifying cultural norms and social behavior. The intent of this research is to examine succession planning in a community college setting and more specifically to address a study of leadership succession planning in the context of New Jersey community college administration.
A qualitative research design is proposed to study how leaders in New Jersey community colleges ensure that strategies are in place to avoid a leadership vacuum. According to Myatt (2012), such vacuums occur because existing leadership fails to lead. In focusing on the human factor, qualitative methodologies can be instrumental in supporting theory and providing the researcher with a viable study representative of the population to be explored (Yin, 2013). Community colleges are reasonable research sites since the propensity of anticipated retirements within the sector is anticipated to create a major concern for institutional stability and organizational structure.
Although community college leadership recognizes the need for a strategic approach to succession, existing research indicates that most community colleges do not have succession or leadership development plans in place (Barden, 2009; Bornstein, 2010). By examining the experiences of leaders in community college settings, the details of this case study will add to the existing body of qualitative research regarding the practice of selection and development of potential community college leaders.
A qualitative multi-case study of succession planning could facilitate deeper understanding of the underlying processes, mechanisms, and concepts associated with succession planning and its relationship to leadership in the community college sector (DeSantis, 2013).
The majority of succession planning has taken place in the business environment. According to Forbes (2013), lack of a formal succession or transition plan places a business at risk for its stability and shared governance. Succession planning helps to ensure select stakeholders are aligned with the business and that key personnel support the organization’s succession planning.
While succession planning appears to be delineated in corporate contexts, the methods, experiences, and outcomes of such leadership succession planning may share some mutual theoretical and practical elements across community college settings.
For the purposes of this study, succession planning will be defined as a process used to identify, prepare, and develop employees internal to an organization to meet an organization’s future talent needs (Rothwell, 2005). There are a variety of succession planning models, but the attributes common to most include a systematic process implemented at all levels of an organization, employee opportunity for upward and lateral movement within the organization, rewarding leaders for promoting their best, talented employees (Rothwell, 2005).
There are several steps to an effective succession plan. These include conducting an assessment of organization’s needs, identifying the knowledge, skills and attributes of future leaders, identifying and assessing the talents of current employees, developing growth plans for employees interested in upward movement, implementing those growth plans with clear feedback and accountability requirements, and finally, evaluating the process (Neef, 2009).
Additionally, the path-goal theory of motivation will serve as a foundation for the study (House, 1996). This theory is based on the idea an employees will exert effort and performance based on their perceptions of a leader’s behavior. The goal of the leader is to communicate clear expectations, describe the path to achieving a goal and then to remove the obstacles for workers as they attempt to perform in an effort to achieve that goal or complete a task. Leaders provide information, support, and resources for employees to do their work.
Human Resource Management Strategies that SMEs Business Leaders use to Increase Employee Productivity
Background of the Problem
Profitability in many organizations is below envisaged levels due to a lack of knowledge about effective usage of human capital among their HR professionals (Lawler &Mohrman, 2013). In Thailand, organizations that fail to implement the necessary HR strategies by their recommended HR professionals often record the lowest profits or no profits and collapse within 2 to 4 years of their existence (Becker &Huselid, 2014). Zaugg and Thom (2013) asserted that employee productivity and the subsequent profitability of many organizations could be increased through the adoption of appropriate human resource management (HRM) strategies and adjust to the fast- changing labour market.
The company productivity is directly linked to the employee’s productivity. If the employees are motivated and are given the freedom to express themselves in a way that corresponds to the operations of the company’s efforts will result to improved company performance.
Inefficiency as far as HR departments are concerned leads to insolvency or financial distress of companies. Organizations have efficiently played a role in improving the nature and the operations that are undertaken by the human resource (HR) professionals. The HR professionals’ role is to ensure that the employees are effective in increasing the company profitability and productivity (Wright et al., 2014).
The creations of sustainable HR strategies are essential for improved employee productivity and continued profitability in organizations in Thailand (Pfeffer&Veiga, 2014). For instance, firms in Thailand have adopted HR strategies such as motivation and ranking of position. This strategy helps the employees to work excellently so that they can get the reward and at least get promoted to a certain position. In return, the employees’ productivity and the company’s profitability increase since the two are directly linked to one another.
Problem Statement
More than 50% of small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) business leader in Thailand fails to utilize strategic human resource management (HRM) practices to manage employee productivity (Platonova et al., 2013). HRM practice accounts for over 80% of employee productivity in SMEs (Platonova, Hernandez & Moorehouse, 2013).
The general business problem is that lack of HRM strategies to manage employee productivity could affect SMEs profitability (Chahal, Jyoti, & Rani, 2016). The specific business problem is that some SMEs business leaders in Bangkok, Thailand lack HRM strategies to increase employee productivity.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study is to explore human resource management (HRM) strategies that small and medium-sized (SMEs) business leaders use to increase employee productivity. The target population consists of SMEs in Bangkok, Thailand. I will interview five business leaders from SMEs who are successful in implementing HRM strategies to increase employee productivity in their perspective organization.
The implication for social change stems from its design to help businesses to implement strategies to increase employee productivity. Employee productivity could increase business profitability, which could foster growth, resulting in employment opportunities for local communities.
Research Question
What HRM strategies that SMEs business leaders use to increase employee productivity?
Interview Questions
1. What HRM strategies you use to increase employee productivity?
2. What are the challenges you face while implementing HRM strategies?
3. How do you overcome such challenges?
4. How do you know that you are successful in implementing HRM strategies?
5. What else could you share that is pertinent to your HRM strategies that we have not covered for increasing employee productivity?
Nature of the Study
There are three types of research method: a) qualitative, b) quantitative, and c) mixed method (O’Brien et al., 2014). In a qualitative method, a researcher seeks to understand the event from the perspective of those who are experiencing the phenomenon (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Quantitative researchers use statistical method that gives numerical results to provide additional data sets for analysis (Blau et al., 2013; Gherardi&Perrotta, 2014; Wolgemuth, 2014).
In this study, I will be interviewing participants to understand the particular occurrence from their perspective. There will be no statistical analysis of numerical data. Therefore, I chose qualitative method over quantitative method. Mixed method, researchers use both qualitative and quantitative methods (Yin, 2014). The mixed methodology is not suitable for this study since the quantitative method is not viable.
There are many designs to choose from under qualitative method. In ethnographic design, a researcher collects ideas, histories, insight, and assumptions in cultural settings (Symons & Maggio, 2014). In narrative design, a researcher collects data in a storytelling format to find the research outcome (Benson, 2014). The purpose of this study is to explore HRM strategies to increase employee productivity.
Both ethnographic and narrative design is not suitable for my research because I am not collecting data in a story telling from the participant’s point of view or in cultural settings. The phenomenological design is suitable for the study that plans to explore the lived experiences of the participants (Wagstaff& Williams, 2014). In this study, I do not plan to capture the lived experience of participants in a general setting, and for this reason, the phenomenological design is not appropriate.
I will use a multiple case study design for this study because it offers in-depth information about a particular matter that would not be likely to get from other designs. The case study is exploratory in nature that integrates multiple data collection techniques and helps to develop common factors inherent in the collected data (Gherardi&Perrotta, 2014; Yin, 2014). The multiple case studies will allow me to interview select SMEs business leaders from multiple companies to understand their perspective on the phenomenon under study.
Conceptual Framework
The Ulrich model is the conceptual framework for this study. Ulrich and Yeung (1989) developed the Ulrich Model in 1989. The Ulrich Model views the human resource process in terms of talent acquisition, compensation and benefits, training and development, leadership, organizational design, and HR development (Brockbank et al., 2013). The model connects HR strategy, goals, objectives, and processes into an operating model (Brockbank et al., 2013).
The central objective of this model is to explain the relationship between the competency of HR professionals and the performance of the organization (Huselid et al., 2014). This framework is applicable to the study, as it will help me to understand how SMEs business leaders integrate HR strategies, HR goals and objectives, and HR process in their overall business strategy to increase employee productivity and business profitability.
Definition of Terms
The following defined terms are specific to the study topic. These definitions help the reader to understand the study as a whole.
Cognitive Orientation: Cognitive orientation describes the different ways an individual may go about the thinking process (Wolgemuth, 2014).
Competency Model: This is a set of expectations within organizations that are used to serve as benchmarks for exemplary performance and increased productivity (Wolgemuth, 2014).
Competency: Competency describes the ability someone’s to do something effectively or successfully (Huselid, Jackson & Schuler, 2014).
Effectiveness: It’s the potential of an organization to make use of its asset to generate cash inflow that exceeds its cash outflow (Yeung, Woolcock& Sullivan, 2013).
Human Capital: Human capital is the skills, knowledge, and experience possessed by an individual and includes education, experience, knowledge, and skills (Wright, Dunford& Snell 2014).
Management: It is the capability of a firm’s management to formulate and attain challenging objectives, take change and decisive practices, outdo the competitors and motivate other to execute efficiently (Weatherly, 2013).
Managerial Competencies: These are the motives, skills, as well as attitudes necessary for a job, including characteristics such as problem-solving, communication skills, the ability to work as a team, and customer focus (Weatherly, 2013).
Practices: Practices describes the ability to perform or carryout a particular method, custom, or activity regularly or habitually (Wright, McMahan & McWilliams, 2014).
Strategy: Strategy describes a policy or a plan of action designed to attain a major or overall aim of an organization (Yeung, Woolcock& Sullivan, 2013).
Sustainability: Sustainability is logical development based on the balance of economic, social, and environmental outcomes to provide benefits to multiple stakeholders (Huselid, Jackson & Schuler, 2014).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
An assumption is acknowledged as accurate or confident to happen without having any proof, (Baranyi, Csapo, & Sallai, 2015). Making sure that the study is complete, there are several underlying assumptions. The first assumption is that during the interview process the researcher should obtain continuous feedback from the research participants. Secondly, during this study, women HR professionals are termed as considerate since they are looking for ways to increase the profitability of their organizations.
The third assumption is that the research participants would provide perspectives or ideas that would assist other HR professionals a not only focus on their industry and business alone but also think global and act the same time act local. This assumption made on the premise that the research participants will articulate how to use HR management strategies to increase organizations profitability.
Limitations
A limitation is the limiting circumstances or rule and restrictions, (Souba, & Souba, 2016). There is a limit of the study by the selected location of study, and there is a possibility of research participants unwilling to share or holding back information. For the mitigation of this limitation particularly the lack of willingness to open up and memory, the interview questions focused on specific issues followed by probing questions to seek for clarifications to ensure that short answers but on point according to the research questions obtained. The five research participants are the other limitation of the study only focused on two medium sized businesses in Bangkok, Thailand.
Delimitations
Delimitation is the choices which the researcher makes for the research which is under the management of the researcher, (ZHANG, & ZHANG, 2013). The researcher must rationalize these delimitations in a research proposal. To mitigate the limitations of the study several delimitations established concerns the research participants, data, as well as the geographical area of the survey.
For instance, the study included participants from two HR organizations that seemed to help organizations to manage their employee’s productivity. The data collection included interviews with the SMES businesses, and the reviews documented. The geographical area provided a reasonable representation of areas in Bangkok, Thailand.
Significance of the Study
Contribution to business practice
The creation of sustainable human resource management strategies is necessary for the continued profitability of SMEs in Bangkok (Pfeffer&Veiga, 2014). The business profitability is dependent on employee productivity (Ahmad et al., 2015; Becker &Huselid, 2014). The human resource management strategies highlight HR activities within the organizations, both large and small to remain sustainable (Becker &Huselid, 2014; Yeung et al., 2013).
Organizations that integrate HRM strategies are efficient in utilizing its human capital and ultimately displaying high profits and growth (Huselid et al., 2014; Martina et al., 2013; Platonova et al., 2013). In essence, the findings of this study could contribute to effective business practice in three ways.
First, the study results will provide HR operational, procedural, and process strategies that successful SMEs use to increase employees productivities. Second, the study may help businesses to identify HRM software and other business intelligence tools that successful SMEs business leaders use to remain profitable. Lastly, the study findings may act as a precursor for future research in strategy formulation to increase business productivity.
Implication of social change
The study results will lead to HRM strategies that are effective in the workplace to increase employee productivity which could lead to business profitability. Effective HRM strategies would make employees satisfied with their job and hence, lower employee turnover for the company resulting in a reduced unemployment rate in the society (Gherardi&Perrotta, 2014; Wolgemuth, 2014). (Wright et al., 2014). Moreover, employee productivity could increase business profitability. Profitability fosters business growth, which could result in employment opportunities for local communities.
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
The purpose of the qualitative is to explore human resource management (HRM) strategies that small and medium-sized (SMEs) business leaders use to increase employee productivity. To come up with comprehensive findings and results of the dissertations, various resources were used. They were arranged in the Zotero software. Seventy articles were researched as far as literature review is concerned, ninety seven percent of the articles were peer reviewed and ninety three percent are in accordance with limited time period required by the Walden University Chief Academic Officer (CAO) agreement.
I limited myself to case studies and peer review to acquire the necessary information that I needed to answer to the research questions formulated and more so get to review the into detail about the human resource management strategies that SMEs business leaders use to increase productivity.
The central research question of the study was as follows: What HRM strategies that SMEs business leaders use to increase employee productivity? In this section, the topic to discuss covers how organizations in Bangkok, Thailand uses or link the human resource management with employee’s productivity that yields to company’s productivity. The subsections include (a) human resource management, (b) human resource strategies, (c) employee productivity, and (d) company productivity.
Human resource management
The primary role of human resource management is to hire and fire employees. However, this changes as per the organizational environment and the nature of the firms operations. In an organization, the human resources play with the company’s operations and they tend to waste time even if they are working. To ensure productivity, the human resource management department imposes human resource strategies such as motivation of workers to ensure productivity.
Doing so, they must come up with various HR mechanisms and strategies that are flexible and easily adoptable by the employees, ((Yeung, Woolcock& Sullivan, 2013).It makes it easier for the human resource to comply with the strategies and yield efficient productivity n terms of company’s productivity. In return to this, the organization will increase on its core competencies, gain a competitive position in the market that is resulted by a bigger market share in the market arena as compared to the competitors. This makes the company profitable with a strong financial position.
Human resource strategies
The imposed plans of the human resource management tend to motivate the staffs to work a little bit harder to ensure efficiency and efficiency of the company’s operations. The strategies imposed should be flexible and adoptable to change depending with the nature of the business environment both internal and external. Also, the strategies must comply with the demand and supply of what is been produced by the employees and what is needed by the company from the human resources.
If the strategies imposed by the HR management department are not in accordance with the taste and preference of the employees, it is difficult to force them to comply. On the other hand, if they are in accordance with their demand, they will comply and changes will be identified in their productivity together with the company productivity, (Huselid, Jackson & Schuler, 2014). Some of the strategies that are imposed are motivations. Through motivations, the employees may compete fairly for the betterment of attaining the award set for the winner or the group of employees. The results of this are to increase the employee’s productivity.
Employee productivity
If the strategies imposed by the HR management department are not in accordance with the taste and preference of the employees, it is difficult to force them to comply. On the other hand, if they are in accordance with their demand, they will comply and changes will be identified in their productivity together with the company productivity, (Huselid, Jackson & Schuler, 2014). It is with no doubt that employee’s productivity is directly related to the human resource strategies.
When a company fails to impose good human resource strategies, it means that the probability that the employee’s productivity will be high is less than 0.5 and vice versa. When employees are well catered for, it guaranteed that they would reciprocate by working in an effective and efficient manner for the development of the firm’s operations. When the employees work excellently, the company profitability will increase since the organization market share and the competitive position will gradually develop (Jakob et al., 2013).
Company productivity
When the HR mechanisms and strategies are flexible and easily adoptable by the employees, ((Yeung, Woolcock& Sullivan, 2013) It makes it easier for the human resource to comply with the strategies and yield efficient productivity n terms of company’s productivity. In return to this, the organization will increase on its core competencies, gain a competitive position in the market that is resulted by a bigger market share in the market arena as compared to the competitors. This makes the company profitable with a strong financial position.
Company productivity is a result of increased or improved employee’s productivity. When the staffs work increases, they develop the organization’s competences at a minimum hurdle rate. With this, it means that the company operation cost is less hence huge profits. Furthermore, improved employee’s productivity creates opportunities for the firm to operate globally and this increases the firm’s competitive position and financial position.
Transition and Summary
The central research of this study is What HRM strategies that SMEs business leaders use to increase employee productivity? The section covered some key elements in the studyand thoseare the Problem Statement, Purpose Statement, Nature of the Study, Research Question, Conceptual Framework, Significance of the Study, and Literature Review sections.
Human capital shows a significant proportion of expenses in organizations that subsequently reduce their profits (Platonova et al., 2013). Research shows a lack of profitability strategies that are unique to the utilization of human capital (Platonova et al., 2013). Organizations perform better when their human capital is aligned to their needs (Becker &Huselid, 2014).
The review of the literature on the practices of HR professionals and organizations’ profitability has shown that in order for effective management of the human resources there is need for organizations to ensure implementation. It entails the implementation of innovative human resources management practices that are angered in the efficiency, competencies, and willingness of the HR professionals (Ahmad, Kausar & Azhar, 2015).
The organizations which are in forefront at implementing such practices with commitment and dedication, attains competitive advantage over their competitors. it is because such practices influence other variables such as financial performance, job satisfaction, employee turnover, employee commitment, among others positively.
Therefore, lead to overall organizations’ performance, productivity subsequently resulting in increased profitability (Platonova, Hernandez & Moorehouse, 2013). The findings from the study could provide HR professionals with a better understanding of the strategies that are effective to increase the employee productivity.
The knowledge could facilitate HR professionals to enhance the profitability potential in their organizations. The literature review provided an understanding of the processes, social constructs, and motivations that are unique to human resource management.
In Section 2, there is a description of a qualitative method research approach, including the populations and sampling, data collection, data analysis, and reliability and validity. The information in Section 3 presents the doctoral study findings, including applications to professional practice, implications for social change, and recommendations for future research.
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Management of project teams is one aspect of project management that should be handled with care. This should be done through coming up with proper schedule of events. The roles of each team player should be well defined. The processes to use for the purpose of achieving various objectives should be set out well. This essay describes management of project teams through use of various tools. This essay details the the role of the critical path method regarding task assignments and the negotiation of resource allocation within the project team. This essay is based on Electronic Health register project for hospitals.
Project schedule on the project tasks to be performed and the contribution of individual team members behavior in allocation of tasks
Project schenduling involves the time frame set for the project to be operational. Identification of dependencies in EHR implementation plays a major part in project scheduling of activities. This scheduling may touch some hospitals for pilot and later all hospitals inclusively ; and the number of participants are determined directly proportional to the number of hospitals there in. In this project , all objectives are achieved within a certain set period under a given resource as depicted by the project schedule below.
Project Management Improvement Project – Phase 1
Effort Estimate in Days
Planned Start Date
Planned End Date
Resource
1
EHR implimentation
1.1
Training on implimentation of EHR
Training on implimentation of EHR
10.00
06/01/16
06/08/16
IT officers, HR, officers, community members and clinical officers
2
Plan Project
2.1
planning, staffing, budgeting and project timing
10.00
07/01/16
07/29/16
Funds Sourcing (Accountants and project co-ordinators)
2.2
EHR Control tools
7.00
07/15/16
07/29/16
Initiating budget cellings (budget committee)
2.3
EHR Expected Benefits
5.00
07/22/16
07/29/16
Time Control tools,(reduced queing)
3
EHR WEB FRAMEWORK AND FORMATS
3.1
Design Framework
3.1.1
Designing EHR web framework delivery tools & Content formats
8.00
08/01/16
08/15/16
EHR technical committee (Software engineers)
3.2
EHR TOOL PROTOTYPE
3.2.1
Build web tool prototype and review content for quality
97.00
09/01/16
10/31/16
Clinical officers , Software engineers and Audit team
3.3
EHR USABILITY &FEEDBACK ADJUSTMENT
3.3.1
Test usability of web tool
13.00
09/19/16
11/30/16
EHR audit team and Clinical officers
3.4
ANNOUNCE AVAILABILITY OF MODERN DATA REGISTRY
3.4.1
Replace traditonal data entry with modern one.
6.00
12/01/16
12/30/16
EHR technical team and the community representatives.
4
PROJECT EXIT AND POST PROJECT PREVIEW
4.1
Conduct Post-Project Review
6.00
01/03/17
01/10/17
Audit team and technical experts
How the behavior of individual team members can determine the tasks they receive
Management of project depends on availability of resources which are always scarce. This calls for expertise and and structures so as to attain projected goals of a project. Individual characters and task groups play a major role in the project planning process, forming and execution. The behavior that each of the project team members exhibit determines the roles that are allocated.
The allocation of duties by management is relatively subjective due to the desired success factors. For this project, the behavior of the project team members has been measured through use of knowledge and understanding of the project. This has let to responsibilities being issued on the basis of : Knowledge and understanding about the operation and implementation of the modern Electronic Health Register .
Those who have holistic understanding of the project cycle are given more responsibilities than those who do not. Ability to give progress reports is another behavioral factor to consider. Team members who are used to forwarding their reports in time have end up being assets to project managers. This is because project management requires timely updates.
Additionally, individuals who are team players get assigned roles much easier than those who are not. Team spirit when upheld, builds innovative capacity and cohesiveness which is the focal point for an organizations success. Group members demonstrating high levels of maturity and leadership are selected to monitor and control organizational politics which sometimes become an impediment to the progress of an organization.
Geographical location also plays a major part in roles allocation, as those who come from a certain geographical area especially where the EHR will be implemented may be assigned more roles or certain roles as its difficult for them to receive rejection from their community. It is important to carefully assign duties to avoid frustration of organizations activites and minimize conflicts that may impair progress of a project.
Key processes to follow when managing the project schedule and oversight each project team member may require based on their behavior.
Project management is usually based on processes. It involves discharge of managerial procedures, materials and essential techniques in unraveling the project schedule. EHR implimentation is of prime importance as it saves patients money, time and allows customers to enjoy optimal functionality of the health sector.
These processes endeavour to deliver quality patient care, uphold efficiency and effectiveness in hospitals, promote timely attendance to customers and strive to exceed customers satisfaction in order mantain loyalty from all its clients. These processes are grouped phases depending on the service anticipated or sought.They include:
1. Recourse Planning – This is the overall technical and material required to run the project as per the plan without budget strains. They include the human capital, the equipment needed and the material levels necessary. This process is fundamental in estimating the budget necessary for the implementation of the electronic health register. This stage consists of professionals who hardly require longer supervision. Support staff in this phase may be guided by the professionals , however little external oversight is necessary to eliminate defiance and promote peer interaction.
2. Project Cost Estimation – This revolves around projected financial estimates that the whole project will incur. It is necessary to develop this projection to enable the project manager to determine whether the available funds are sufficient to implement the project and if not, to open up on better ways to source for finances. Budget committees constitute the financial projection team. Thorough supervision should be given at this phase to avoid over or under estimation of figures.
3. Project Activity Budgeting – This involves allocating a vote to every program. It determines the cost of each individual activity that enables the organization arrive to its cost estimates. It is important to do activity costing to seal loop holes for inefficiencies and promote overall effectiveness of the project activities. Each group here gives its individual budget on the basis of tasks allocated. Supervision is critical here to control exaggeration of figures.
4. Cost Control – This process is about controlling changes to project budget. This also involves controlling projects expenses to ensure that the intended project remain within budget limits. It basically targets to eliminate wastes and enhance project efficiency through the stakeholders and the project manager.
Precedence diagram method in managing team tasks and team conflicts
Precedence diagram is a management tool that involves graphical presentation of sequential activities to explain inter–dependencies and order . It is also called activity on node. This tool is of necessity in drawing critical path network diagrams.It makes use of arrows and nodes. The arrows pointing the end activity. Precedence diagrams are critical in fostering information reliance to the stakeholders.
These diagrams normally use four types of dependencies. One of the dependencies is finish to start dependencies. This explains that the second activity can not be performed without actualizing the first activity. The other dependency is finish to finish events which explains that the first activity and the second activity should start simultaneously. For example crafting of managerial tools is dependent on the tools used in the implementation of EHR and when one activity will be over, the other one will definitely come to an end.
Start to start events is the other dependence. It states that the first activity should start at the same time with the second activity. For example replacement of old health register will be over when the electronic health register will come in to operation. Proper documentation of activities or tasks by the use of the critical path plays a major part in making teams to understand what activities are important than others.
The critical path also plays a major part in explaining the reasons for allocating resources in other tasks earlier than others. It also enables all task teams to understand why they receive a certain compensation interms of bonuses while others do not.
The role of the critical path method regarding task assignment and the negotiation of resources allocation within project teams
Critical path method is one of the oldest mathematical programming models that was operationalised by DuPoint in 1950 in the missile defense construction projects. This was in a view to schedule the activities done on the basis of their importance in order to determine the longest time consumed so as determine the shortest time to be taken for a project completion.
The critical and the non-critical events determine how the essential activities will consume resources and the time they will take to be completed. It is represented by a critical path diagram. In order to make proper use of the critical path method, work packages are grouped and assigned to the project deliverables to aid in project planning and execution. These packages are assigned completion times which at times depict the cost accrued from the project actualization.
When all these packages are linked, they form a schedule. The below example explains WBS of Hospital activities that are crafted and networked to be represented in a network diagram. In EHS implimentation, activities are inter inter linked from training up to the project exit. Each task is carefully managed since the work outflow is sequential through the critical path.
Negotiation of resources allocation within project team
Projects are mostly construed by resources against the wide and diversified requirements and ever shifting priorities. Negotiation plays a critical role in organization’s performance and specifically on EHR resource allocation. The critical path method helps the EHR project manager in determining the resource limits to allocate to the project teams. This may be either on the basis of the priority or logic. Projects that start earlier than others are allocated resources first in assistance of the tools and expertise needed.
Critical path method is necessary in ensuring a win – win situation for the project teams and the project management. Resource negotiation plays a key role in determining eligible overtime, in evaluation of performance to determine on the bonuses to be given and determining on whether to extend the team members contract or not. This also helps in analyzing whether an event is critical or non-critical in a bid to determine resource allocation.
The Influence of Leadership Style on Employee Satisfaction and Productivity
1.0 Introduction
In this research study, the researcher seeks to find out how various leadership style influence the productivity and satisfaction of workers in the banking sector in the United States. My background/inspiration/motivation for the proposed research comes from the fact that I have previously worked in an organization in which the top leaders and managers did not recognize the effect of various leadership styles on employees’ satisfaction and productivity.
The employees were never inspired. They were also never motivated to carry out their job tasks very well. Therefore, the level of job performance of employees was frequently low. They were often dissatisfied and had low productivity. The research project is potentially important as it will help leaders and managers in organizations to adopt suitable styles of leadership that could help improve the satisfaction as well as productivity of their employees.
Most companies and organizations comprise employees and employers, or in other words, staff members and management or followers and leaders. Many leaders are goal-oriented (Ispas, 2012). To attain the desired goals, there has to be an interaction between followers and leaders or staff members and management, or employees and employers. The style of leadership that typifies the interaction between managers/leaders and their staffs/followers is most significant in terms of the productivity, efficiency and satisfaction of employees (Emery & Barker, 2012).
My work-based context which has led me to examine this topic is that while working in the company, I realized that as the workforce of the business organization, employees perform various duties needed to attain the company’s objectives and goals. I also realized that the satisfaction of employees is impacted by their view of their jobs and the company for which they are working for.
How employees perceive leadership behaviour is a vital predictor of employee job commitment and satisfaction. It is worth mentioning that how employees perceive the leadership behaviour of their leaders/managers is also related to their job attitudes and productivity (Mustafa & Lines, 2013). Styles of leadership could either discourage or motivate workers, which could consequently result in employees’ decrease or increase in their performance level.
Some of the sources of employees’ job dissatisfaction include absence of promotion prospects, insufficient compensation, and conflicting job demands from the leadership. For purposes of efficiency, an effective style of leadership is one which has a positive effect on the satisfaction of employees and leads to better job performance, productivity and effectiveness (Wong & Laschinger, 2013).
The functional areas of business that I am drawing upon include employee productivity and job satisfaction. Employee satisfaction is understood as how employees in an organization feel about their jobs and the various facets of their jobs (Keskes, 2014). The seminal literature that I would use to illustrate the academic underpinning of the research includes various peer-reviewed. Over twelve journal articles would be examined in the literature review section of this research paper.
When the company’s leaders and managers adopt suitable leadership styles such as transformational leadership, the leaders would be able to inspire and motivate employees who will be able to feel satisfied with their jobs. In turn, these employees would improve their job performance and work productivity which is good for the company’s financial bottom line (Li-Fen & Chun-Chieh, 2013).
Based on the findings of the study, implications for organizations would be described which would include a discussion on the most important leadership styles that comprise leadership behaviours that could really improve employee job satisfaction and productivity. Organizations with poor and ineffective leadership styles would have to alter their leadership approaches if they are to improve employee satisfaction and productivity.
The research would be really innovative since although existing published research would be utilized, they would be utilized within a dissimilar setting. At the moment, there is gap in the existing literature. No earlier research studies have looked into the influence of leadership style on the productivity and satisfaction of employees in various organizations in the United States.
Most previous studies that have explored this topic have focused on the impact of leadership styles on employees’ work performance in the context of organizations in Asia and not in America. As such, the study would fill this gap in literature by examining the topic in the context of companies in America.
2.0 Aims and objectives
Aim: the overall aim of this study is to delve how different styles of leadership influence the productivity and satisfaction of employees.
Objectives:
How does transformational leadership style influence employee job satisfaction and productivity?
How does transactional leadership style influence employee job satisfaction and productivity?
How does laissez-faire leadership style influence employee job satisfaction and productivity?
Which of these three leadership styles best influences employee job satisfaction and productivity?
The formulated research aim and objectives are appropriate for this study since they would help to determine how leadership styles actually affect employee productivity and satisfaction. They would also help to determine the best leadership style that company leaders and managers can adopt in order to effectively improve the job satisfaction and productivity of workers.
3.0 Identification and initial review of key literature
According to Deshpande and Hill (2015), leadership is understood as the process of influence on the subordinates, where the subordinates are inspired to attain the specified target. Another scholar, Yi-Feng (2014) noted that leadership is the process in which a person, a leader in this case, influences a grouping of people to attain a common objective.
McClean, Burris and Detert (2013) stated that leadership means using a leading strategy to offer inspiring motives and to improve the workers’ potential for development and growth. All in all, leadership refers to the process of influence between subordinates and leaders in which the leader influences the behaviour of the subordinate to attain the goals and objectives of the organization (Abualrub & Alghamdi, 2012).
The success of an organization in attaining its specified objectives and goals is contingent on the company’s top leaders and the styles of leadership they use. When suitable styles of leadership are adopted, the leader can affect employees’ commitment, satisfaction, and productivity on the job (Jamaludin et al., 2011). A leader plays a vital role in the accomplishment of a company’s objectives through creating a climate which influences the behaviour, motivation and attitudes of employees.
Employee productivity is crucial to a company’s bottom line. To perform better and improve their level of productivity, workers need to have the proper working conditions. Ahmad et al. (2013) stated that proper working conditions encourage staff members to put up the right behaviour or attitudes to their work. Employee job and organizational commitment relates positively to job satisfaction, organizational career support and supervisory support. Workers who find that their companies positively evaluate their job performance have a high likelihood of exhibiting a high job satisfaction level.
Employee satisfaction, as Wong and Laschinger (2013) pointed out, is how staff members feel about their work duties and the various facets of their work tasks. Employee satisfaction is a vital concern in all business organizations given that it is focused on utilitarian as well as humanitarian perspectives. Employees, as per the humanitarian perspective, should be treated respectfully and fairly.
As per the utilitarian view, employee job satisfaction could result in employee behaviours which affect organizational performance and functioning (Quintana, Park & Cabrera, 2015). Factors such as working conditions, company policy and administration, salary, supervision, personal life and security, relationship with other workers, the work itself, responsibility attainment, and recognition affect employee satisfaction with the job.
3.1 Leadership styles
This research study is focused on three styles of leadership: transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire. Transformational leadership: this style of leadership motivates the followers through appealing to higher moral values and ideals which could inspire the staff members to carry out their work tasks exceeding expectations and transform both organizations and individuals (Keskes, 2014). A transformational leader emphasizes the follower’s personal development and intrinsic motivation.
This leader seeks to align the needs and aspirations of the follower with the company’s desired outcomes. By this means, this leader is able to foster commitment of the followers to the company and inspire the followers to go beyond their anticipated job performance and productivity (Jackson, Alberti & Snipes, 2014). As regards the dynamic business environment and complex organizations of today, a transformational leader is mainly considered a perfect change agent with the ability to lead his/her followers during periods of high risk-taking and uncertainties.
The transformational leader’s main objective is basically to work to transform or change the needs of the follower and redirect their thinking. This leader inspires and challenges his/her followers with a sense of excitement and purpose (Ispas, 2012). The leader with this style of leadership exhibits the following characteristics: intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and charismatic leadership.
Transactional leadership: this leadership style is founded on bureaucratic authority as well as legitimacy in the organization. Transactional style of leadership gives emphasis to task-oriented goals, assignments and work standards. It is focused on employee compliance and task completion and is dependent on organizational punishments and rewards to influence the performance of employees (Emery & Barker, 2012).
A transactional leader gains legitimacy by using promises, praises and rewards which would satisfy the immediate needs of the followers. This leader engages his/her followers through giving rewards in exchange for the attainment of the set objectives and goals. All in all, a transactional leader focuses her leadership on motivating her followers using a system of punishments and rewards.
Ispas (2012) noted that a transactional leader focuses on improving the effectiveness of the established procedures and routines. Such a leader is more concerned with sticking to the current rules than with making alterations to the company. Transactional leaders establish and standardize practices that would help the company attain the following: increasing productivity, efficiency of operations, goal-setting, and maturity (Techoresh et al., 2014).
Laissez-faire leadership: this is typified by a general or total failure to take managing responsibilities. With this style, the leader fully gives the employees all the power and rights to make decisions. It allows the followers to have total freedom in making decisions with regard to performing their job (Jamaludin et al., 2011).
Laissez-faire leadership style gives the followers independence but the leader provides support and guidance whenever requested. In essence, the leader who adopts this style of leadership gives his/her follows all the necessary materials to carry out their objectives and goals. Even so, the leader does not take part directly in making decisions unless the followers ask for his help (Quintana, Park & Cabrera, 2015).
In most organizations, the effectiveness of an organization is very much contingent on the style of leadership used by its leaders. A leader and his/her style of leadership plays a vital role in the success of a company. The adopted style of leadership has a major effect on employee satisfaction on the job as well as job performance. Employees who have higher job satisfaction tend to have greater job commitment and job productivity (Belnio, 2011). All things considered, organizations require strong leadership styles which stimulate the productivity and performance of employees.
3.2 Conceptual framework
Deshpande and Hill (2015) pointed out that the style of leadership adopted by leaders in an organization is of great importance in influencing the job satisfaction of workers. Quite a few researchers have learned that dissimilar styles of leadership would engender dissimilar working environment and affect employees’ work satisfaction directly (Keskes, 2014; Jackson, Alberti & Snipes, 2014). Mustafa and Lines (2013) observed that the transformational leadership style may intrinsically promote more work satisfaction largely because of its capacity to impart a sense of intellectual stimulation and mission.
A transformational leader tends to motivate and encourage her followers to assume more autonomy and responsibility, which in turn enhances the workers’ sense of achievement as well as job satisfaction (Emery & Barker, 2012). Transformational and transactional leadership styles have been extensively associated with organizational and individual consequences. Both these styles of leadership have a positive correlation with employees’ perception of work, organizational satisfaction, and leader.
Abualrub and Alghamdi (2012) stated that workers are by and large most satisfied whenever they view their supervisors as individuals who exhibit task-oriented and relational behaviours. In his study, Belonio (2011) found that different styles of leadership including laissez-faire, transactional and transformational styles affect different facets of employee satisfaction with their jobs. This researcher also noted that a mix of the different styles of leadership would result in more job satisfaction and improve productivity and performance of employees (Belonio, 2011).
In their study, Ahmad et al (2013) found strong correlations between employee satisfaction and transformational style of leadership compared to transactional style of leadership. These researchers also found a dissimilar facet between transactional and transformational styles of leadership on employee work satisfaction. According to Ahmad et al (2013), transformational leadership style had higher ratio and beta which demonstrated greater influence on employee work satisfaction than transactional style.
In another study, Li-Fen and Chun-Chieh (2013) discovered that both transactional and transformational styles of leadership had an effect on employees’ work performance, although the transformational style had higher leadership outcome than transactional style. The laissez-fair style has been shown to have a noteworthy effect on total employee job satisfaction (Belonio, 2011).
Transactional leaders can increase the productivity of their followers particularly when productivity of the workers is measured quantitatively and punishments or rewards are fairly given. Transformational leadership results in the process of transforming the workers’ value, emotion, as well as objectives for the specific performance and productivity basing upon their talent (McClean, Burris & Detert, 2013).
3.3 Research question and hypotheses
For the proposed study, the research question is as follows:
How do various styles of leadership influence employee productivity and satisfaction?
The following hypotheses are formulated basing on the conceptual framework.
Hypothesis 1
Alternative Hypothesis H1: there is a significant influence of transformational leadership on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Null Hypothesis H0: there is an insignificant influence of transformational leadership on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Hypothesis 2
Alternative Hypothesis H2: there is a significant influence of transactional leadership on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Null Hypothesis H0: there is an insignificant influence of transactional leadership on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Hypothesis 3
Alternative Hypothesis H3: there is a significant influence of laissez-faire leadership on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Null Hypothesis H0: there is an insignificant influence of laissez-faire leadership on employee satisfaction and productivity.
Quantitative research studies in general have research questions and hypotheses (Park & Park, 2016 .I will seek to test and prove that the alternate hypotheses are true.
4.0 Research approach
4.1 Research methodology: quantitative research
This is a quantitative research study. A quantitative research study is generally concerned with discovering facts regarding social phenomenon and assumes a measurable and fixed reality (Park & Park, 2016). This type of research methodology is used to explain phenomena through gathering statistical data which are then analyzed through the use of numerically based techniques.
The main sources of quantitative data include secondary data for instance company reports; observations that might either entail coding observational data to translate that data into numbers, or counting the frequency with which a certain phenomenon crops up, for instance the frequency with which a certain word is utilized in interviews; or surveys, which is reliant on several questions asked to the respondents in the same manner to many participants (Venkatesh, Brown & Bala, 2013).
The independent variables are leadership styles whereas the dependent variables include employee job satisfaction and productivity. The job satisfaction and productivity of employees are contingent on the leadership styles. A deductive approach is utilized considering that this is a quantitative study. A deductive approach, as Venkatesh, Brown and Bala (2013) pointed out, focuses on developing a hypothesis basing upon an existing theory; a deductive design tests a theory.
A research strategy is then designed to test the formulated hypotheses. Deductive implies that the researcher reasons from the particular to the general. If a certain case example or theory appears to imply a causal link or relationship, it may be true in most instances. A deductive approach will test to find out whether or not this link or relationship derived from circumstances that are more general (Barnham, 2015).
All in all, a deductive design could be explained through hypotheses, which could be derived from the theory propositions. Put simply, the deductive design focuses on deducting conclusions from propositions or premises.
There are several strengths of the quantitative research method. Some of these include the fact that a quantitative study provides data which is descriptive in nature, and quantitative research is considered as being more objective and reliable. In addition, quantitative research can effectively reduce and restructure a complex problem to a few variables, it can be used in testing hypotheses and theories, and uses statistics in generalizing a study finding (Barnham, 2015).
Furthermore, quantitative research examines associations between various variables and establishes cause and effect in very controlled circumstances. Quantitative research is also helpful in studying many people, the findings of the research are relatively independent of the investigator for instance the statistical significance, and collecting data through the use of quantitative questionnaires is relatively speedy.
It also provides accurate, numerical, quantitative data (Venkatesh, Brown & Bala, 2013). Analysis of data is moderately less time consuming since statistical software could be employed. However, quantitative data is generally less comprehensive compared to qualitative data and could overlook a desired response from the study subject.
4.2 Research design: quantitative case study
A case study is understood as a detailed study of a certain situation instead of a comprehensive survey (Venkatesh, Brown & Bala, 2013). A case study design would be used in which the researcher will focus on three cases of three different companies based in California. Quantitative questionnaires would be utilized in data collection. The data collected would be in numerical form that could be easily put into categories, measured in units of measurement, or put in rank order.
The questionnaire surveys would have closed-ended questions and rating scales that would produce quantitative data. The data would be utilized in constructing tables and graphs or raw data (Venkatesh, Brown & Bala, 2013). In this study, the subjects include employees in three different organizations that are based in California. As such, the data would be collected in 3 companies.
The questionnaire surveys would be sent to the participants through email to fill. After completing the questionnaires, the respondents would send back the completed questionnaires for data analysis. For this study, the sample comprises employees from three companies in the banking sector. The companies are in San Diego, California where the study will be carried out. A total of 60 participants would be selected for the study.
The type of sampling method that will be utilized by the researcher in the proposed study is purposive sampling. In essence, this is the premeditated selection of the informants on account of certain characteristics or traits that they possess (Guarte & Barrios, 2011). Using purposive sampling method, staff members in 3 different companies in the financial/banking sector would be picked to take part in the research as study subjects. The 3 companies are all located within one state; California, although they have branches in other states also.
These participants would be picked by the researcher since they are working in an organization in which specific leadership styles which the researcher is interested in are practiced; hence they are well positioned to give crucial information as regards to how various styles of leadership as used by their leaders influence their satisfaction as well as productivity.
The researcher would address ethical issues through the use of informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity. Through informed consent, the study subjects will get to understand that they are participating in the study. They will also get to understand what the research is requiring of them. The information in the informed consent would include the following: the study’s purpose, methods to be utilized, likely outcomes of the study, in addition to any related risks, inconveniences, discomforts, and demands which the study subjects might encounter.
The confidentiality and anonymity of the study subjects would also be protected. To protect confidentiality, the data would be treated confidentially in terms data storage, data analysis and publication. The private and sensitive information of the study subjects such as names and address would be held in confidence. Any identifiable information would not be divulged to third parties. By removing the name of the participants and any identifiable information, their anonymity would be protected.
4.3 Data analysis: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Since this would be a quantitative study, quantitative data analysis would be performed on the collected data. In particular, the information would be analyzed through statistical inferences and numerical comparisons. The data would be reported through statistical analyses.
Since there are quite a few dependent variables, the researcher will utilize Multivariate ANOVA or MANOVA quantitative data analysis tool in analyzing the influence of various styles of leadership on the productivity and job satisfaction of employees. Besides the use of MANOVA in the analysis of data, graphs would also be utilized to display the collected data through tests of correlations between 2 items, to statistical significance.
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Organizational Design as it Relates to Organizational Theory
Annotated Bibliography
Abstract
Organizational design is an important aspect in organizational theory, given the role played by organizational design in providing direction for the firm. Organizational design refers to systematic methodologies that organizations utilize in identifying organizational aspects that are dysfunctional, before realigning them to ensure that they are in tandem business goals and developing plans to make the necessary changes.
Organizational theory, on the other hand, involves the study of organizations with an objective of identifying structures and strategies for efficiency and productivity maximization. Organizational design is related to organizational theory because organizational theory seeks to study strategies undertaken by firms to enhance productivity, which essentially represents what organizational design aims to achieve.
In studying research design as it relates to research theory, a number of themes are explored in this paper. These include the impact of organizational design in promoting firm productivity and efficiency, the impact of organizational design on change management, the role of organizational design in enhancing employee performance and motivation, how organizations can ensure that they have the right fit when it comes to organizational strategy, and how the effectiveness of organizational design can be enhanced.
Outline
Organizational design
Organizational theory
Organizational design as it relates to organizational theory
Impact of organizational design in enhancing productivity and firm efficiency
Organizational design and its role in change management
Organizational design and its role in employee motivation and engagement
Organizational design and the concept of FIT
Promoting the effectiveness of organizational design
Annotated Bibliography
Tarek, S., Wilberg, J., Tommelein, I. D., & Lindemann, U. (2016). Supporting the design of competitive organizations. Journal of Modern Project Management, 4(2), 96-103. doi:10.19255/JMPM01109
This paper addresses organizational competitiveness by illustrating the importance of adapting effectively to market changes. According to Tarek et al. (2016), external environment trends are a constant disruption to companies and the need to adopt strategies that enhance competitiveness is of great significance. In this paper, they make use of the Viable Systems Model (VSM), which is used in promoting organizational design and avoiding deficiencies. Technology adoption and external environment monitoring come out as important themes in strategic design in a bid to improve competitiveness. This paper effectively demonstrates the importance of organizational design in enhancing competitiveness and is therefore applicable to my topic.
Capelle, R. G. (2017). Improving Organization Performance by Optimizing Organization Design. People & Strategy, 40(2), 26-31.
This article dwells on explaining the relevance of organizational design on organizational performance. In this article, Capelle (2017) notes that a clear understanding of current strategy is important in organization design optimization, such that the organization can be transformed into a high-performing unit. The role of organizational design in relation to the human resource is discussed, with the conclusion that the design of the organization determines its overall performance.
This includes the development of optimal organizational structures and clear lines of accountability and deliverables. People alignment is also considered an imperative factor in optimizing organizational design as it ensures efficient performance. This paper addresses a critical aspect of organizational theory which is the impact of human resource management and will be useful in addressing the employee engagement section in my paper.
Donaldson, L., & Joffe, G. (2014). FIT – the key to organizational design. Journal of Organization Design, 3(3), 38-45. doi:10.7146/jod.18424
The ability to develop an organizational design that meets a company’s objectives and aligns with its strategy is considered an important factor in determining its efficiency. In this paper, Donaldson & Joffe (2014) discuss the concept ‘fit’, noting that an organizational design needs to fit the situation in order to successfully influence the performance of the organization.
Situational factors may include organizational size, competitive strategy, and task uncertainty. Donaldson & Joffe (2014) also use the contingency theory to explain how fits may be developed and misfits identified. The paper aligns well with my paper because it provides valuable details on how to promote the effectiveness of strategic design through ensuring that it fits the organization’s situation.
Stea, D., Foss, K., & Foss, N. J. (2015). A Neglected Role for Organizational Design. Journal of Organization Design, 4(3), 3-17. doi:10.7146/jod.20434
In this paper, the authors focus on the relevance of delegation in enhancing an effective organizational design. According to Stea, Foss & Foss (2015), organizations must respond to environmental changes that currently call on organizations to foster knowledge and motivation among employees. This is effectively achieved through delegation and can be realized through the development of the organizational design to create value for organizations.
The paper also discusses the question of credibility in delegation and motivation, which may affect the outcome of the exercise. This paper is a great addition to my literature review as it addresses issues affecting organizational design.
Nissen, M. (2014). Organization Design for Dynamic Fit. Journal of Organization Design, 3(2), 30-42. doi:10.7146/jod.8196
Nissen (2014) discusses the concept of ‘fit’, which is considered an important aspect of organizational design. Given the constant change in the business world, organizations must adjust in order to be competitive and strategic design must seek to address these dynamics in ensuring that it works effectively for the organization.
Nissen studies various theoretical perspectives affecting fit including design orientation, manager roles, organizational systems and measurement and validation. This paper provides valuable insight into my topic and will be beneficial in explaining how organizational design success can be enhanced.
Felin, T., & Powell, T. C. (2016). Designing Organizations for Dynamic Capabilities. California Management Review, 58(4), 78-96. doi:10.1525/cmr.2016.58.4.78
Enhancing competitiveness is subject to an organization’s ability to adapt to different environmental changes. Felin & Powell (2016) examine the development of dynamic capabilities through organizational design and note that this could be impactful in enhancing innovation. The article makes reference to Valve Corporation as an example, an organization that has been highly successful in market adaptation and strategic innovation in a fast-moving environment.
The research by Felin & Powell notes that dynamic capabilities ensure that organizations can survive in competitive landscapes and constant market changes including technology change and market demand volatility. This research will contribute to my paper through providing insights on how organizations can harness their strategic positions through organizational design.
Connor, A. (2015). Organizational Design that Really Works. Design Management Review, 26(3), 23-29. doi:10.1111/drev.10329
This paper addresses organizational change and its related impact on organizational design. According to Connor (2015), change and reorganization require the application of innovative strategies to ensure that the change is beneficial to the organization. In this regard, organizational design is considered imperative in ensuring that change is set up in a way that it aligns with and supports the organizational objectives. Connor notes that integrating design into an existing system requires adjustments to ensure a strategic fit and also the need to observe, analyze and modify to allow effective implementation.
Mendoza-Walters, A., & Ivanov, S. (2016). Combining passion with planning: applying organizational theory to improve business operations in non-profit organizations. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 9(2), 46-51.
This research is unique in that while a majority of articles focus on for-profit organizations, it addresses the challenges faced by non-profit organizations. Through focusing on a Washington DC non-profit, the paper demonstrates how organization theory could improve its performance, by ensuring effective planning. Mendoza-Walters & Ivanov (2016) make various recommendations for more effective performance including the implementation of more strategic division of labor, restructuring the organization, and the inclusion of technology in enhancing planning. The paper demonstrates that business efficiency can be improved through organizational theory and therefore forms a basis for understanding my topic of study.
Aubry, M., & Brunet, M. (2016). Organizational Design in Public Administration: Categorization of Project Management Offices. Project Management Journal, 47(5), 107-129.
Aubry & Brunet (2016) focus on public administration organizational design with the aim of determining how government offices can utilize organizational design to improve their performance. The public administration offices are required to implement multiple projects with each requiring careful consideration to ensure that it meets the needs of the public. Effective project management requires organizational design to ensure that the projects are successfully implemented.
In this relation, Aubry & Brunet (2016) suggest categorization of projects based on types and this is considered effective in enhancing project outcomes. The research concludes that organizational design is important in enhancing project outcomes and therefore effective in promoting public organizations’ performance. This paper contributes to my research by providing important aspects of organizational design and how they influence performance.
Daft, R. L. (2015). Organization Theory and Design. Cengage Learning.
This book offers valuable information on organizational theory and design by discussing the two concepts in detail, culminating in a comprehensive understanding of how organizational design is related to organizational theory. The author addresses various factors influencing organizational design’s effectiveness.
This includes a discussion of the internal and external factors that influence organizational design as well as internal design elements that are useful in enhancing the organizational performance. These include technology organization size and life cycle. It also covers innovative ways of managing dynamic processes such as innovation, change, ethical values, conflict and power among others. This is a rich information source that will be of great significance in my research.
Burton, R. M., Obel, B. & Håkonsson, D. D. (2015). Organizational Design: A Step-by-Step Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This book discusses the multi-contingency organizational design besides other aspects of organizational design and theory. In doing so, the authors identify two complementary problems involved in organizational design namely the partitioning of tasks and coordination of sub-unit tasks to enhance effective fit with the organizational goals.
In explaining the concept of organizational design, they approach it from a multi-contingency aspect and discuss five components namely the scope/goal, structure, strategy, processes, and people. This information provides a great understanding of organizational design and it can be established that by aligning these organizational design components, efficiency may be achieved. This book is highly valuable and will provide high-level information for reference in my research.
Hunter, S. D. (2015). Combining Theoretical Perspectives on the Organizational Structure-Performance Relationship. Journal of Organization Design, 4, 2, 24-37.
In this paper, Hunter (2015) focuses on the organizational structure by noting that it plays an important role in promoting organizational performance. The paper discusses theoretical aspects on the link between organizational structure and performance. Organization design elements are influenced by various factors including environmental conditions, task characteristics, strategic orientation, and relationships. This insinuates that organizational design determines how effective an organization is in creating an organizational performance. This research will add to my literature review by demonstrating the interrelationship between organizational design and performance.
McDonnell, J. M. (2015). The Role of Organizational Design in 21st Century Organizations: George Jetson and the Star Model. Journal of Transformative Innovation, 1 (1), 1-6.
As technological advancements continue to be witnessed in today’s world, business is likely to change significantly and it is this kind of changes that this article addresses through a discussion on the role played by organizational design in modern organizations. McDonnel points out that organizations must have a futuristic approach and this entails an inclusion of organizational designs that reflect strategic thinking. Organizational design is considered a way of achieving this by combining different strategies to meet today’s business environment challenges including management of people, processes, structure, and rewards. The research will add value to my research by providing valuable information on organizational design and how it impacts performance.
Junqueira, E. et al. (2016). The Effect of Strategic Choices and Management Control Systems on Organizational Performance. DOI: 10.1590/1808-057×201601890
In this research, Junqueira, et al. (2016) investigate generic strategic choices and how they affect the performance of organizations. In doing so, the concepts of organizational design and organizational theory emerge and it can be established that the strategic choice taken determine the outcome in reference to organizational performance. According to the research, the strategy adopted by the organization is influenced by the competitive forces and that the organizational design is highly instrumental in influencing performance. This source provides information about strategic design and will be useful in developing an understanding of how it influences performance in the development of my paper.
Chouikha, M. B. (2016). Organizational Design for Knowledge Management. New York: Wiley & Sons
Knowledge management is imperative in organizational design as it ensures that set strategies can be effectively implemented. This is articulately discussed by Choiuikha (2016) in his book on organizational design for knowledge management. The book addresses the relevance of knowledge by illustrating how organizations can anchor knowledge through individual skills, data and information, and how this can be elevated from individual to organizational learning. In this relation, knowledge transfer, knowledge acquisition and knowledge storage are considered key in enhancing organizational strategy and consequently the organizational performance. The impact of culture on knowledge management is also discussed. This book contains valuable information that will be instrumental in ensuring that my research is based on good foundations on organizational design and theory.
References
Aubry, M., & Brunet, M. (2016). Organizational Design in Public Administration: Categorization of Project Management Offices. Project Management Journal, 47(5), 107-129.
Burton, R. M., Obel, B. & Håkonsson, D. D. (2015). Organizational Design: A Step-by-StepApproach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Capelle, R. G. (2017). Improving Organization Performance by Optimizing Organization Design. People & Strategy, 40(2), 26-31.
Chouikha, M. B. (2016). Organizational Design for Knowledge Management. New York: Wiley & Sons
Connor, A. (2015). Organizational Design that Really Works. Design Management Review, 26(3), 23-29. doi:10.1111/drev.10329
Daft, R. L. (2015). Organization Theory and Design. Cengage Learning.
Donaldson, L., & Joffe, G. (2014). FIT – the key to organizational design. Journal ofOrganization Design, 3(3), 38-45. doi:10.7146/jod.18424
Felin, T., & Powell, T. C. (2016). Designing Organizations for Dynamic Capabilities. California Management Review, 58(4), 78-96. doi:10.1525/cmr.2016.58.4.78
Hunter, S. D. (2015). Combining Theoretical Perspectives on the Organizational Structure-Performance Relationship. Journal of Organization Design, 4, 2, 24-37.
Junqueira, E. et al. (2016). The Effect of Strategic Choices and Management ControlSystems on Organizational Performance. DOI: 10.1590/1808-057×201601890
McDonnell, J. M. (2015). The Role of Organizational Design in 21st Century Organizations: George Jetson and the Star Model. Journal of Transformative Innovation, 1 (1), 1-6.
Mendoza-Walters, A., & Ivanov, S. (2016). Combining passion with planning: applying organizational theory to improve business operations in non-profit organizations. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 9(2), 46-51.
Nissen, M. (2014). Organization Design for Dynamic Fit. Journal of Organization Design, 3(2), 30-42. doi:10.7146/jod.8196
Stea, D., Foss, K., & Foss, N. J. (2015). A Neglected Role for Organizational Design. Journal of Organization Design, 4(3), 3-17. doi:10.7146/jod.20434
Tarek, S., Wilberg, J., Tommelein, I. D., & Lindemann, U. (2016). Supporting the Design of competitive organizations. Journal of Modern Project Management, 4(2), 96-103. doi:10.19255/JMPM01109
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The relevance of effective leadership in enhancing the quality of pedagogy continues to gain significant importance in the field of early childhood, as stakeholders seek to achieve greater professionalism and enhanced outcomes as illustrated by children’s performance (Heikka, 2014). “The field of early childhood education and care has had a growing interest in pedagogical leadership rising from the need to increase quality and influence organisational change (Alameen, Male & Palaiologou, 2015).” In this regard, there is greater focus on building relationships, mentorship, diversity and inclusiveness. Individuals in leadership work in partnership with others, providing leadership opportunities to other staff, students and others in the education community. This insinuates that leadership as traditionally defined does not always apply to early education realms. It is because while business and other sectors may observe leadership from a hierarchical perspective, effective early years leadership is mostly more collaborative or transformational in nature. The traditional way of envisioning a leader as the one on top of the hierarchy is a just incomplete definition of how leadership is. Leadership is a process that is influenced by the shared vision and purpose by individuals or teams in connecting with each other. Effective leadership while being guided by the principal who provides direction goes beyond this by recognising the role played by all stakeholders as defined in shared values, visions and expectations. Leadership in early childhood education is an in-depth human quality that does not follow the conventional rule of authority.
Children are purely innocent to what this society gives to them in early childhood. If the society provides them with effective skills of leadership then that is what they are going to get regardless of gender or sect. If children are exposed to negative traits from the society then this would only end up in criminal activities. Children tend to strive hard to learn the way of living which society provides them. The importance of early childhood education can be imagined from Siraj-Blatchford and Hallet’s (2014) idea of leadership, which states that “Effective and caring leadership is an evolving area of importance in developing quality provision for young children and families (p. 9).” Early childhood leadership is not only about the business of academics but it involves everyday routine of children’s services.
In recognition of the growing importance placed on leadership in early childhood education, this paper explores the concept of leadership in the context of early education and how it influences the quality of education. In this relation, it will focus on what leadership means in the context of early childhood education, leadership styles in ECE, effective pedagogy in the early years, effective leadership in the early years and challenges and issues in early childhood leadership.
The Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) project changed the education landscape in Europe, and can be considered an influential study in the emerging importance of leadership in early childhood education (Siraj‐Blatchford, et al., 2008). The longitudinal study was the first of its kind and consisted of a young children’s development sample with the objective of investigating the impact of preschool education among three and four year children. Information for the study was collected from 3000 children and also involved interaction with their parents, home environment and school settings (Sylva, et al., 2004) Through the research which as conducted between 1997 and 2004, it was established that education quality made a significant impact in the development of children (Sylva, et al., 2004). This is a function of leadership, which the study also established as being instrumental in ensuring quality and better outcomes among children.
Based on the study results, it was established that high performing centres included in the study had resilient leadership and a strong shared philosophy, and that managers ensured a strong lead in planning and curriculum development. In addition, leaders in these centres encouraged staff development, education focus, child-adult interaction, all essential aspects of leadership in early childhood education. Therefore this study illuminated the importance of effective leadership in preschool in a bid to enhance outcomes and it remains a point of reference in the realms of ECE.
Effective Leadership in the Early Years Sector (ELEYS) and Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) also played an imperative role in illuminating leadership as an important issue in early education. The ELEYS research demonstrated the ideal setting for early year schools, noting that adult-child interaction, good curriculum knowledge among practitioners, parent involvement, formative feedback and behaviour policies influenced good outcomes for children Siraj-Blatchford et al (2007). REPEY on the other hand argues for the provision of leadership for learning as a fundamental requirement in early learning. This can be done through social context considerations, collective working and a focus on children’s learning outcomes. This research is based on the passing of the Children Act of 2004 in England and the commitment of the government to reform children services through the ‘Every Child Matters’ campaign (Siraj-Blatchford, I & Manni, 2007). These two studies have influenced commitment towards leadership in ECE and are a good source of reference for leadership literature.
Early childhood is a sensitive stage where all leadership efforts should be directed towards ensuring the best outcome for the children. Leadership in early childhood education has been considered a pacesetter and a major influence of quality, hence the need to effectively understand what really consists of leadership in ECE.
Kagan and Bowman (1997) proposed five faces of leadership that early childhood leaders should seek observe in order to promote the outcome of children in their schools.
The first face of leadership is administrative leadership. This involves the everyday operational activities and management of services (Kagan & Bowman, 1997). In executing administrative leadership, a leader is expected to maintain skills necessary in:
Dealing with people: This involves building effective relationships with staff, children, families, board members and colleagues among others
Structure: This entails the maintenance of infrastructure, complying with regulations, security issues and fire procedures among others
Processes: This includes the development of policies and procedures for governing school activities, including interaction of children and families.
Culture: this involved possessing knowledge on resource and referral agencies as well as changes in legislation.
Outcome: This includes maintenance of occupancy rates, fees, wages, budgets, petty cash and resources among others.
Environment: This involves awareness of the health and safety issues related to the occupation as well as the legislative requirements and aesthetics.
Pedagogy is understanding how learning process takes place which is supported by philosophy and practice.Pedagogical leadership entails the recognition of the best approaches in ensuring quality of early childhood care and education (Heikka, 2014). At the core of early childhood education lies the need to ensure that the quality of children’s lives is improved through enhanced growth, learning and development (Cheng, 2013; Kivunja, 2015). In this relation, leadership in ECE is about identifying how best the children can learn. It is associated with the philosophy of the program, its goals and everyday practices that are advocated for in the managing the organisation (Murray & Clary, 2013). A leader is also expected to stay informed about issues and trends in early childhood education and care, and propagate the same information to staff. Leaders are expected to work closely with families and the community and ensure that all their actions demonstrate their knowledge of pedagogical leadership in everything they do (Sullivan, 2010).
Leaders is early education have an obligation to disseminate the importance of early childhood education to the community. This means that leaders must promote advocacy for best practices in early childhood education in order to influence the community and the overall outcome of ECE in the community (2008). It involved being increasingly visible in the community where one operates, developing community partnerships and participating in the education and training of ECE professionals through mentorship and networking. An early childhood leader is required to collaborate with community members and play a vital role in influencing policy making within the community.
Conceptual leadership is about being actively involved in the creation of new ideas with the aim of advancing the profession. This means that a leader should be capable of contributing to the ECE profession through innovative and futuristic thinking that leads to the development of pioneering ideas to influence early childhood education success (Kagan & Bowman, 1997; Rodd, 2013). This is equated to visionary leadership and is best achieved if one has a social conscience. This means that ideas are based on what leaders believe is the best for the advancement of children in early years.
Leaders in early childhood are expected to actively advocate for early childhood issues in order to improve the welfare of children and their families (Kagan & Bowman, 1997; Woodrow, C & Busch, 2008). Leadership involves taking a lead in looking out for better education quality and advocating for issues affecting early childhood education such as licensing requirements, affordable childcare, teacher salaries and other important issues (Rodd, 2013). Leadership in ECE is not only about working with individuals and organisations within their immediate sector but rather collaborating with others beyond their environment to create better outcomes in the early childhood sector.
Effective leadership in early childhood is defined by the ability of the leadership to effect high quality, through involvement of different stakeholders and upholding professionalism. This can be demonstrated in the following illustration, which demonstrates the importance of well set goals, high quality educators, professionalism in leadership, programming quality, and the involvement of families in ensuring outcomes for children.
Pedagogical Leadership tells us to reconsider the way we learn and work alongside with other adults. It is a common observation that development and growth take time and the best way children learn is by the interest and engagement with adults. Characteristics like curiosity, purposefulness and openness create an environment of learning both for the child and for the adult.
The Pedagogical Leader has an important role in creating a setting that supports values and vision for a healthy and quality learning environment. In this kind of environment, habits like organising time, spending money and supporting others come from the vision for growing child. In this way, children are nourished to produce leadership qualities and sense of responsibility. (Coughlin & Baird, 200)
It has been recognised that effective leadership is the key to the growth of education and care. Teaching, learning and sustaining high-quality learning environment cannot be shaped without the skilled and committed leaders. There are minimal chances for effective leadership in early childhood without these skilled pedagogical leaders. According to a research, leadership comes only second when teaching has an influence on learning. Leadership is essential to an improved outcome and equality in education. (Leithwood et al., 2006: 4)
The style of leadership that is adopted within the organisation to a great extent determines the organisation’s performance. In this respect, the leadership style adopted should match the objective of the organisation in order to ensure that set goals are met. In early childhood, it has been established that leadership is more about inclusiveness and that the traditional idea of leadership, demonstrated through hierarchical outlook is considered outdated. Leadership is seen as a practice that is socially constructed and where the need to promote the quality of education and outcomes for children determines the leadership style adopted. The following leadership styles consist of some of the leadership styles adopted among early education institutions.
Directive leadership: In directive leadership, leaders are required to guide followers by spending as much time as possible with learners who are learning new tasks. The leader is expected to observe the learner provide feedback and develop suggestions for improving performance (Wieczorek-Ghisso, 2014). Directive leadership in ECE is seen as a means to ensure that the learner acquires the best knowledge possible to enhance the quality of education.
Facilitative leadership: This style seeks to empower group members by providing them with the resources necessary to execute their work. This style is aimed at ensuring that the needs of group members are met and that the outcome is satisfactory to the children and their families. While it may be directive at times, facilitative style is never authoritarian.
Participative leadership: This is where the leader promotes a collaborative atmosphere with teachers, such that everyone has an opportunity to participate in decision making. Ideas from followers are held in high regard and each view is considered important. Leaders are open with teachers and communication ensures that they can contribute to the everyday running of the school (Aubrey, et al, 2013). Participative leadership enhances motivation and is considered effective in advancing performance due to its ability to identify new ideas that would otherwise go unutilised.
Transformational leadership: Leaders depicting transformational leadership lead by showing concern to personal development of followers, such that they are committed to ensuring that they can discover their potential by acting as their role models. Through providing them with the required knowledge and resources, transformational leaders develop their followers into leaders and moral leaders through inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, idealised influence and individualise consideration (Hughes, 2014). In ECE, this plays a role in enhancing motivation and thus high performance of teachers; consequently contributing to changes in school education. Transformational leadership is such that both the leaders and followers learn from each other and is therefore not about power holding.
Situational leadership: A commonly used leadership style is situational leadership, where leaders tend to apply different approaches in dealing with different issues. This according to Wieczorek-Ghisso (2014) is an approach which in the early years education context is based in levels of competency, such that continuous professional development is enabled. This is evidenced through the Blanchard model which provides four different leadership styles for four competence levels identified. Blanchard’s quadrant, consists of four leadership styles namely directing, coaching, supporting and delegating. Each style is useful for different competency levels through which staff go through before they can be considered highly effective to work without much support.
Blanchard’s first competence level consists of staff portraying high commitment and low competence. These are members who are probably new in context and therefore lack the necessary skills to carry out required activities. This group may display high enthusiasm and willingness to learn but lack the skills to perform effectively. The suggested leadership style is the ‘directing’ approach, aimed at providing them with guidance to undertake activities through providing specific instructions and making follow up. An employee who effectively succeeds in this quadrant such that they no longer require close supervision then moves to the second quadrant, representing low or some competence and low commitment. This group requires ‘coaching’ as the leadership approach. This requires leaders to explain the importance of task completion and monitoring of progress while providing encouragement and support.
When a staff is ready to move to the next quadrant, this means that they no longer need coaching but rather ‘supporting’. These are staff with high competence but with variable commitment. While they may have adequate experience, such teachers may lack confidence, motivation or initiative to undertake independent tasks. By supporting their daily activities, a leader can ensure that staff effectively accomplish tasks and that they develop high commitment. This means that they are ready to graduate to the next quadrant, consisting of staff with high commitment and high competence. These are individuals who have mastered their roles and who are confident in their ability, experienced, knowledgeable and self-motivated, such that they do not require much supervision. In this situation, the leader employs ‘delegating’ approach, such that these individuals may be trusted with responsibilities without the need for monitoring or direction.
The model is considered effective because it aims at gradually developing staff capabilities to ensure that they can effectively respond to delegated tasks. It considers the different needs of staff and the required form of support needed to enhance competency and is thus considered an effective approach to leadership.
Leadership is an undertaking that requires individuals to demonstrate their ability to influence processes and other people for the attainment of set goals, such that leaders are expected to possess certain qualities that differentiate them from others (Ang, 2012). It is not any different in early childhood and the following qualities of a leader ensure enhanced outcomes. Teachers with early childhood development degree give them the right skills to help every child learn. Practically speaking, teachers of early education of children must possess certain qualities that will enable them to motivate children along with finding joy every day (Aubrey, 2011).
When it comes to young children, leaders having the confidence of working with the children require enthusiasm and dedication to the work. Only this way, they could think of achieving the successful completion of their leadership duties. Teachers should have the enthusiasm to unlock each child’s door to learning. In addition, every child is different which makes the job even more challenging; thus requiring a patient nature along with good sense of humour to help the teacher to face this sloping path of ups and downs every day.
Every child has a different learning style and personality when he comes to school for early education. Each child would have his or her own style of doing anything. Due to this reason, teacher must always respect the differences and mange to teach in each child’s style rather than imposing on the child to adapt another style. Furthermore, each day teaching young children and at the same time educating them requires creativity. Adapting to the style of learning that each child possess is flexibility. Regardless, the planning a teacher has done for each day, there should be flexibility to handle all the glitches that can throw off the day. A successful early childhood teacher would be the one who is always creative and flexible to make each day a positive one.
An effective leader takes approaches that are unique and whose execution ensure that organisational goals and objectives are met. This skill requires critical thinking to ensure that ideas and strategies set the organisation apart from competitors through quality outcomes. Additionally, an inspirational leader motivates followers to perform by helping them discover their strengths. He or she should be capable of influencing followers to perform by helping them discover their potential, providing them with the needed guidance and rewarding good performance (Murray & Clary, 2013).
Contemporary leadership literature indicates that active involvement of employees and other stakeholders in leadership decisions and undertakings can have an influential role on organisational outcomes (Grant, 2016). In early education, there is need to involve teachers, boards, students and the community in leadership, thus ensuring that the management can understand what the needs of others are. When leadership considers the input of others, the likelihood of success is enhanced through diversity in ideas. In a world where leadership entails greater involvement of stakeholders in leadership and decision making, having a leader who is open and accommodating can have a considerable impact on the organisation. In early education, being open can encourage contribution from followers and thereby improve the outcome of schools.
Every leader’s mandate is to achieve the organisation’s goals and objectives and thus contribute to the overall performance of the organisation. In this relation, a leader must not lose focus on the main goals that the organisation seeks to achieve (Grant, 2016). This ensures that he or she can effectively lead others in achieving the goals, correct deviations, mentor and encourage others to achieve. In doing so, the ability to influence others through endowing them with the power to perform is considered a major leadership quality. Leaders in early childhood should not only provide teachers with the necessary skills to perform tasks but they should also build their capacity to perform roles that are considered as being beyond their level, including independent decision making (David, 2012).
A leader should be concerned about the welfare of others, such that their decisions should be considerate about the feelings of others. This is essential in ensuring that followers feel appreciated, which promotes their productivity and willingness to contribute in organisational activities (Cheng, 2013). Being collegial involves recognising every individual as being important and avoiding self-exalting behaviour. An effective leader sees themselves as part of the team and thus encourages others to work to work together towards achieving the organisation’s goals (David, 2011). This demonstrates the adoption of a give-and-take approach, such that the leader can learn from followers, just as followers learn from them.
Developing skills necessary to enhance the performance of early education institutions is imperative in enhancing pedagogical leadership. Waniganayake (2014) notes that while a majority of institutions have ECE graduates, most of these individuals are not equipped with the leadership strategies necessary to enhance performance. Waniganayake (2014) further notes that given the budding nature of ECE, the number of schools has grown significantly, leading to the demand for managers and principals. This means that more ECE teachers find themselves in positions of leadership when they are fresh graduates with minimal knowledge and skills on leadership. In order for them to successfully execute the mandate given to them, such teachers require training to help them acquire the necessary leadership skills and qualities. This may be enhanced through different approaches as discussed below.
Learning communities
Group of individuals when come together to share passion and interest in collaborative learning is known as professional learning communities. Individuals participating in this learning communities build up knowledge through their interactions. There is a need of facilitator who helps them to start a dialogue of ideas that could enhance the connection to values and perspective. The professional learning communities is a powerful staff development strategies to help shift the focus from teaching to learning. (Coughlin & Baid, 2013)
Giving Time to absorb
Time is very precious and a necessity for any skill or development to be fully absorbed by both children and adults in the early learning environment. It is often practiced that learning communities make quick fixes and single training session to introduce change. However, to make changes sustainable, educators must be given time to share their complexities and practice growth in collaborative work.
Selection of Pedagogical Leaders for preschools
The building of strong leadership in the field, teacher’s education serves as an important role for building new resources and learning environment for the children. Student teachers should be selected on the merit of their experience that includes teamwork, engagement with kid and reviews from their pedagogical courses. These pedagogical leaders are also asked to provide a reflection of their leadership journey and opinions for life-changing experiences.
While the above discussion demonstrates approaches to developing pedagogical leadership skills, it is notable that there are various issues related to early years leadership that could affect such processes. Some of the challenges witnessed in early years leadership are discussed as follows.
Like in any other profession, the issue of age in leadership is prominent and the question of the age at which an individual can take up leadership is of concern. In ECE, a high number of young professionals are increasingly joining leadership, more so with the increase in the number of institutions and the consequent demand for managers and principals. Whether these individuals, some who are fresh from college have the requires skills and capabilities is what makes it challenging for them to pursue their careers. This is more so where there the individual needs to manage older staff who may not appreciate their position as leaders.
A significant issue in early education is that individuals in leadership are not as adequately remunerated as their counterparts in other sectors. Given the significantly low pay among early childhood education professionals, taking up a position of leadership is not as motivating as it would be in other sectors where it would come with attractive perks. As a result, individuals are more likely to be adamant to take up leadership positions because the amount of work involved may not be adequately compensated.
Early childhood education for a considerable portion of its history mostly constituted of a female workforce. According to Siraj and Hallett (2014), early education workforce could comprise up to 98-99% women. This can be attributed to the fact that women were considered more caring and motherly to children, and as playing the nurturing role which they did best (Kelleher, 2011). Mistry and Sood (2013) also note that stereotyping of men who work in early childhood education as either paedophiles or homosexuals has led to slow growth in the number of men in the sector. This feminisation has an impact on leadership in that men who have since joined early childhood education still find it difficult to settle into the female dominated career. As a result, leadership roles among men tend to be few in the sector. According to Mistry and Sood (2013), the gendered perception about men in the early education profession may lead to leadership prejudice because men still tend to be treated with suspicion when handling children. This could deny men an equal chance at being in leadership positions despite being qualified.
Leadership remains a challenging undertaking and some individuals tend to shy away from such responsibility. This means that despite their qualifications, they may be reluctant to lead. According to Mistry and Sood (2012), early years leaders tend to be reluctant on taking on the leadership of whole schools because they believe that it is not given adequate significance. In addition, some leaders are reluctant to take on management roles because they feel that such responsibilities divert their attention from their preferred role as child developers and educators. Mistry and Sood (2012) add that reluctance could also be based on lack of confidence in their level of training on leadership such as adult management and budgeting among others. Reluctance may also be observed among males, mostly due to the desire to remain inconspicuous based on the feminisation issue discussed above.
A major issue is the existence of the hierarchical leadership mentality in some institutions. Some early childhood schools are still run using the traditional leadership approaches, such that it becomes difficult for an inclusive workplace to be maintained. This may impact leadership effectiveness and consequent leadership outcomes.
The effectiveness of leadership in ECE can be measured against the learning outcomes of children, such that the key role played by school principals can be recognised based on the performance of their schools. However, leadership issues discussed above must be addressed in order to ensure that leadership is enhanced for better outcomes.
An important aspect to consider is the defeminisation of the profession. Currently, the profession still remains a female dominated field and encouraging men to participate would play a relevant role in enhancing leadership efficiency. To succeed in this, there is need to eliminate the stereotypes surrounding men as early childhood educators and instead advocate for male participation in ECE leadership.
Achieving high level motivation as far as leadership is concerned is a challenging task for this sector, given the low motivation to lead. To achieve this, authorities in ECE must recognise that leadership in ECE is just like leadership in other professions and that there is need to motivate leaders through improved pay and providing opportunities for skill development (Jor’dan, et al, 2013). Mentorship would work effectively in promoting performance of upcoming leaders and ensuring that they remain focused.
It is apparent that individuals in ECE are increasingly taking up leadership positions at a young age, which implies that their leadership skills may not be well developed. In this relation, leadership should be incorporated into graduate programs to ensure that leadership in an ingrained skill among ECE graduates. By preparing graduates for leadership as part of their learning objectives, it is easier for them to fit into leadership positions.
It is important to recognise that children are emotionally bonded to their parents. The workforce in early year education is most comprises of female. The Daycare Trust reports that 97.5% of the workforce for childcare comprises of females. This gender discrimination in child care needs to end. Men should be actively involved in this workforce. Other than this, research also tells that there is a strong need for collaborative leadership training for pedagogical leaders for better future of early childhood education (Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2007).
Bring the educators and parents together with the photos of children with observations of children behaviour when engaged in focused activity. Star the conversation by asking questions like: What appearance can be noticed from child’s face when focused in any activity? What interests him the most? How much child tries to give effort to area of his interest? How child’s point of view can be considered a factor of influence for the thinking of educator?
Importance of Home Learning
Other than preschool learning at early age, EPPE study has found out that children’s intellectual and social development is more influenced through Home Learning Environment (HLE) then by their parent’s education, occupation, and income. Due to this, the study also concludes that children’s learning by their parent’s support is far more important than who the parents are. The study clearly suggests that the parents should opt for giving more time and affection to their children. Children need a healthy environment to get morally stronger. In this fast-moving world, people have generally less time for their children due to work load and professional responsibilities. That is why there is preschool where children are taught in a proper systematic way to nourish their skills and to provide them with the environment which they couldn’t get at home (Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2006).
Leadership in the context of early childhood education has recently been illuminated as an important aspect in determining the quality of outcomes among children. Evidently, effective leadership in ECE is directly related to the performance of early years institutions and the need to develop such skills is necessary. This paper discussed the concept of leadership as it applies to early childhood education, with specific attention to the nature and facets of leadership in ECE, the application of leadership styles, qualities of good leadership and the challenges facing effective leadership in ECE. It can be established that leadership in ECE has not effectively matured and that there are certain issues that still require to be addressed in order for institutions to function effectively. However, training and application of effective leadership styles could play an important role in enhancing leadership outcomes in ECE settings.
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In an increasingly competitive world, effective leadership ensures that a firm can maintain a reasonable niche. This calls for the adoption of leadership styles and approaches that best enhance the organization’s performance. This paper is an assessment of Global Delivery Direct one of the prevalent leadership theories, leadership approach and leadership style; in a bid to determine the candidate that best suits the position of a manager for the new custom delivery service.
Leadership Theories: GDD’s Results
The table below illustrates the common leadership theory, leadership approach and leadership style at GDD.
Leadership Theory
Leadership Approach
Leadership Style
Relational leadership theory can be observed at GDD. Leaders applying this model are inclusive, purposeful, empowering and ethical.
The proactive leadership approach best applies at GDD. Leaders are future oriented and always focused on finding solutions to benefit the company.
A combination of situational and transformational leadershipstyle applies to GDD, which believes in a different ideal for each situation.
The relational leadership theories are most prevalent in GDD, which aims at enhancing success in the 21st century. This is a modern theory in which shared vision is encouraged and maintaining effective relationships is considered important in promoting performance.
GDD considers proactivity in leadership a major prerequisite for effective leadership because it ensures better performance through futuristic thinking that ensures that leaders can come up with solutions to drive the organization’s vision as opposed to being reactive to problems. Leaders at GDD are required to identify new opportunities for the company and also be on the lookout for potential leaders within the organization.
A modification of situational and transformational leadership styles is evident in GDD, where leaders are encouraged to treat each situation uniquely while encouraging and mentoring followers to effectively achieve the organization’s performance. At GDD, leaders are not only interested in situations but also people involved in accomplishing organizational goals.
This style of leadership is effective in the modern world where the relevance of workers is becoming increasingly important in enhancing innovation and championing change (Grant, 2016). Accordingly, respect, trust, ethical values, and expertise are considered worthy traits for leaders who aim at promoting employee commitment and organizational effectiveness.
Candidate’s Results
Based on an assessment of the candidates, the table below is a summary of their prevalent leadership theory, leadership approach and leadership style.
Candidate
Leadership Theories
Leadership Approach
Leadership Style
Henrietta Raynard
Great Man Theory
Structural approach
Authoritative leadership
Orson Hernandez
Contingency theory
Inclusive approach
Laisse-Faire
Jonathan Livingston
Relational theory
Proactive approach
Transformational leadership
Adrianna Coyote
Relational/servant
People-focused approach
Servant/authoritarian
Raynard believes in great man leadership theory, and this can be demonstrated by her how she is more concerned about being the leader while giving no concern to employee participation. She prefers to make the rules as opposed to including the opinions of others and believes the best way to enhance performance is to ensure rules, policies, and structures are followed. She seems rigid in her approach and is not proactive.
She does not seem aware of her leadership approach, but hers can be described as the structural approach. Her leadership is authoritarian because she prefers to be in control.
Hernandez exercises the contingency theory and this means that he tends to lead depending on the situation. He understands the importance of motivating and empowering employees, and this explains his leadership style, which is laisse-faire.
This is a leadership style where employees are empowered to make decisions in performing their work thus enhancing productivity. Hernandez says he does not have an approach to leadership, but his approach appears to be an inclusive approach, influenced by his leadership style.
Livingstone exercises relational theory and considers this imperative due to its ability to influence relationships within the organization. He has a proactive approach, demonstrated by his previous visit to both companies before the interview and his approach of looking for leadership opportunities and encouraging others to act on them. He is also a transformational leader and believes in people relations.
Coyote’s leadership style is more about enhancing motivation and satisfaction of her followers. She achieves this through flexibility, looking into her team’s needs and allowing them an opportunity to be happy with their jobs. While she does not seem to know her leadership approach, hers is a people-oriented approach where her team’s happiness is considered of great importance.
This can be associated with her recognition that happy employees perform better. This also explains her leadership style which is servant leadership. This means that she is more concerned with the needs of her team and how she can help them achieve the best. By combining this with a bit of authoritarianism, she has managed to achieve success in her leadership role.
GDD/Candidates’ Comparison
Candidate
1 No Fit
2 Bad Fit
3 Not Sure
4 Good Fit
5 Best Fit
Raynard
Hernandez
Livingston
Coyote
Raynard is considered a bad fit because she is an authoritarian as opposed to a transformational leader as required by GDD. She does not seem social with employees, and this means that she is not in a position to influence them or motivate them to perform better as required at GDD. Based on her emphasis on the use of rules, structures, and procedures, her approach does not encourage innovation and proactivity. She also seems unsure of her leadership approach style.
Hernandez is a good fit because he seems interested in employee involvement, motivation, and empowerment, which are considered highly important at GDD. He also exercises situational leadership which is encouraged at GDD alongside transformational leadership. However, his leadership style does not match that of GDD, and he does not seem to be aware of his leadership approach.
Livingstone’s leadership theories, leadership approach and leadership style is a perfect match with that of GDD. Livingstone exercises relational theory takes on a proactive approach and is a transformational leader.
Coyote is considered a good fit because besides having experience with the company, she is people-oriented, which means that she keeps her employees motivated. She is more concerned about employee welfare and provides a flexible working environment. Her authoritarian style may, however, impede performance to a certain extent. It is not certain whether she is proactive and innovative and she is also unaware of her leadership approach.
Recommendation
Livingstone’s leadership theories, leadership approach and leadership style best matches that of GDD. Accordingly, he is considered the most suitable candidate for the job. GDD promotes relational leadership, and it can be established that Livingstone recognizes the importance of relationships with followers, given the role played by individuals in making change work.
A similar theory is taken by GDD which encourages the creation of fruitful relationships to enhance performance. The proactive approach taken by Livingstone matches GDD’s as evidenced by his quest to seek leadership opportunities and encourage employees to work on them. This matches the example of Juan Carlos, the college intern at GDD who was recognized as an opportunity for leadership.
Livingstone also took the time to visit both companies before the interview and this shows his proactivity. Regarding leadership style, Livingstone is a transformational leader, and this remains a desirable trait at GDD.
Pedagogical leadership is theorized as being one of the most important kinds of leadership in early childhood education, based on its recognition of best practices for teaching and learning. Leadership is considered one of the most imperative quality aspects in Early Childhood Education (ECE), due to its role in enhancing educational quality. Recent studies have established that the early childhood educator profile is changing and the need to possess leadership skills is necessary to respond effectively to the changes in the education environment.
Waniganayake (2014) notes that unlike in the past where teacher responsibilities exclusively focused on the education of young children, the contemporary early childhood settings have expanded in scope with increasing demands from the government, parents and other stakeholders. This demonstrates expanding roles for ECE professionals and hence the growing relevance of pedagogical leadership.
The relevance of effective leadership in enhancing the quality of pedagogy continues to gain significant importance in the field of early childhood, as stakeholders seek to achieve greater professionalism and enhanced outcomes as illustrated by children’s performance (Heikka, 2014). “The field of early childhood education and care has had a growing interest in pedagogical leadership rising from the need to increase quality and influence organisational change (Alameen, Male & Palaiologou, 2015).”
In this regard, there is greater focus on building relationships, mentorship, diversity and inclusiveness. Individuals in leadership work in partnership with others, providing leadership opportunities to other staff, students and others in the education community. This insinuates that leadership as traditionally defined does not always apply to early education realms. It is because while business and other sectors may observe leadership from a hierarchical perspective, effective early years leadership is mostly more collaborative or transformational in nature.
The traditional way of envisioning a leader as the one on top of the hierarchy is a just incomplete definition of how leadership is. Leadership is a process that is influenced by the shared vision and purpose by individuals or teams in connecting with each other. Effective leadership while being guided by the principal who provides direction goes beyond this by recognising the role played by all stakeholders as defined in shared values, visions and expectations. Leadership in early childhood education is an in-depth human quality that does not follow the conventional rule of authority.
Children are purely innocent to what this society gives to them in early childhood. If the society provides them with effective skills of leadership then that is what they are going to get regardless of gender or sect. If children are exposed to negative traits from the society then this would only end up in criminal activities. Children tend to strive hard to learn the way of living which society provides them.
The importance of early childhood education can be imagined from Siraj-Blatchford and Hallet’s (2014) idea of leadership, which states that “Effective and caring leadership is an evolving area of importance in developing quality provision for young children and families (p. 9).” Early childhood leadership is not only about the business of academics but it involves everyday routine of children’s services.
In recognition of the growing importance placed on leadership in early childhood education, this paper explores the concept of pedagogical leadership in the context of early education and how it influences the quality of education. In this relation, it will focus on what leadership means in the context of early childhood education, leadership styles in ECE, effective pedagogy in the early years, effective leadership in the early years and challenges and issues in early childhood leadership.
Background Study of Pedagogical Leadership
The Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) project changed the education landscape in Europe, and can be considered an influential study in the emerging importance of leadership in early childhood education (Siraj‐Blatchford, et al., 2008). The longitudinal study was the first of its kind and consisted of a young children’s development sample with the objective of investigating the impact of preschool education among three and four year children. Information for the study was collected from 3000 children and also involved interaction with their parents, home environment and school settings (Sylva, et al., 2004).
Through the research which as conducted between 1997 and 2004, it was established that education quality made a significant impact in the development of children (Sylva, et al., 2004). This is a function of leadership, which the study also established as being instrumental in ensuring quality and better outcomes among children.
Based on the study results, it was established that high performing centres included in the study had resilient leadership and a strong shared philosophy, and that managers ensured a strong lead in planning and curriculum development. In addition, leaders in these centres encouraged staff development, education focus, child-adult interaction, all essential aspects of leadership in early childhood education. Therefore this study illuminated the importance of effective leadership in preschool in a bid to enhance outcomes and it remains a point of reference in the realms of ECE.
Effective Leadership in the Early Years Sector (ELEYS) and Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) also played an imperative role in illuminating leadership as an important issue in early education. The ELEYS research demonstrated the ideal setting for early year schools, noting that adult-child interaction, good curriculum knowledge among practitioners, parent involvement, formative feedback and behaviour policies influenced good outcomes for children Siraj-Blatchford et al (2007).
REPEY on the other hand argues for the provision of leadership for learning as a fundamental requirement in early learning. This can be done through social context considerations, collective working and a focus on children’s learning outcomes. This research is based on the passing of the Children Act of 2004 in England and the commitment of the government to reform children services through the ‘Every Child Matters’ campaign (Siraj-Blatchford, I & Manni, 2007). These two studies have influenced commitment towards leadership in ECE and are a good source of reference for leadership literature.
Early childhood is a sensitive stage where all leadership efforts should be directed towards ensuring the best outcome for the children. Leadership in early childhood education has been considered a pacesetter and a major influence of quality, hence the need to effectively understand what really consists of leadership in ECE. Kagan and Bowman (1997) proposed five faces of leadership that early childhood leaders should seek observe in order to promote the outcome of children in their schools.
The first face of leadership is administrative leadership. This involves the everyday operational activities and management of services (Kagan & Bowman, 1997). In executing administrative leadership, a leader is expected to maintain skills necessary in:
Dealing with people: This involves building effective relationships with staff, children, families, board members and colleagues among others
Structure: This entails the maintenance of infrastructure, complying with regulations, security issues and fire procedures among others
Processes: This includes the development of policies and procedures for governing school activities, including interaction of children and families.
Culture: This involved possessing knowledge on resource and referral agencies as well as changes in legislation.
Outcome: This includes maintenance of occupancy rates, fees, wages, budgets, petty cash and resources among others.
Environment: This involves awareness of the health and safety issues related to the occupation as well as the legislative requirements and aesthetics.
Pedagogy is understanding how learning process takes place which is supported by philosophy and practice.Pedagogical leadership entails the recognition of the best approaches in ensuring quality of early childhood care and education (Heikka, 2014). At the core of early childhood education lies the need to ensure that the quality of children’s lives is improved through enhanced growth, learning and development (Cheng, 2013; Kivunja, 2015).
In this relation, leadership in ECE is about identifying how best the children can learn. It is associated with the philosophy of the program, its goals and everyday practices that are advocated for in the managing the organisation (Murray & Clary, 2013). A leader is also expected to stay informed about issues and trends in early childhood education and care, and propagate the same information to staff. Leaders are expected to work closely with families and the community and ensure that all their actions demonstrate their knowledge of pedagogical leadership in everything they do (Sullivan, 2010).
Leaders is early education have an obligation to disseminate the importance of early childhood education to the community. This means that leaders must promote advocacy for best practices in early childhood education in order to influence the community and the overall outcome of ECE in the community (2008). It involved being increasingly visible in the community where one operates, developing community partnerships and participating in the education and training of ECE professionals through mentorship and networking. An early childhood leader is required to collaborate with community members and play a vital role in influencing policy making within the community.
Conceptual leadership is about being actively involved in the creation of new ideas with the aim of advancing the profession. This means that a leader should be capable of contributing to the ECE profession through innovative and futuristic thinking that leads to the development of pioneering ideas to influence early childhood education success (Kagan & Bowman, 1997; Rodd, 2013). This is equated to visionary leadership and is best achieved if one has a social conscience. This means that ideas are based on what leaders believe is the best for the advancement of children in early years.
Leaders in early childhood are expected to actively advocate for early childhood issues in order to improve the welfare of children and their families (Kagan & Bowman, 1997; Woodrow, C & Busch, 2008). Leadership involves taking a lead in looking out for better education quality and advocating for issues affecting early childhood education such as licensing requirements, affordable childcare, teacher salaries and other important issues (Rodd, 2013). Leadership in ECE is not only about working with individuals and organisations within their immediate sector but rather collaborating with others beyond their environment to create better outcomes in the early childhood sector.
Effective leadership in early childhood is defined by the ability of the leadership to effect high quality, through involvement of different stakeholders and upholding professionalism. This can be demonstrated in the following illustration, which demonstrates the importance of well set goals, high quality educators, professionalism in leadership, programming quality, and the involvement of families in ensuring outcomes for children. This is best achieved through pedagogical leadership, which is considered highly relevant in promoting high quality education in early childhood.
Pedagogical leadership can be considered the most effective leadership in early childhood and its principles should be emphasised to promote educational outcomes. Pedagogical Leadership tells us to reconsider the way we learn and work alongside with other adults. It is a common observation that development and growth take time and the best way children learn is by the interest and engagement with adults. Characteristics like curiosity, purposefulness and openness create an environment of learning both for the child and for the adult.
The Pedagogical Leader has an important role in creating a setting that supports values and vision for a healthy and quality learning environment. In this kind of environment, habits like organising time, spending money and supporting others come from the vision for growing child. In this way, children are nourished to produce leadership qualities and sense of responsibility. (Coughlin & Baird, 2013)
It has been recognised that effective leadership is the key to the growth of education and care. Teaching, learning and sustaining high-quality learning environment cannot be shaped without the skilled and committed leaders. There are minimal chances for effective leadership in early childhood without these skilled pedagogical leaders. According to a research, leadership comes only second when teaching has an influence on learning. Leadership is essential for an improved outcome and equality in education. (Leithwood et al., 2006: 4)
The style of leadership that is adopted within the organisation to a great extent determines the organisation’s performance. In this respect, the leadership style adopted in enacting pedagogical leadership should match the objective of the organisation in order to ensure that set goals are met. In early childhood, it has been established that pedagogical leadership is more about inclusiveness and that the traditional idea of leadership, demonstrated through hierarchical outlook is considered outdated.
Leadership is seen as a practice that is socially constructed and where the need to promote the quality of education and outcomes for children determines the leadership style adopted. The following leadership styles consist of some of the leadership styles adopted among early education institutions.
Directive leadership: In directive leadership, leaders are required to guide followers by spending as much time as possible with learners who are learning new tasks. The leader is expected to observe the learner provide feedback and develop suggestions for improving performance (Wieczorek-Ghisso, 2014). Directive leadership in ECE is seen as a means to ensure that the learner acquires the best knowledge possible to enhance the quality of education.
Facilitative leadership: This style seeks to empower group members by providing them with the resources necessary to execute their work. This style is aimed at ensuring that the needs of group members are met and that the outcome is satisfactory to the children and their families. While it may be directive at times, facilitative style is never authoritarian.
Participative leadership: This is where the leader promotes a collaborative atmosphere with teachers, such that everyone has an opportunity to participate in decision making. Ideas from followers are held in high regard and each view is considered important. Leaders are open with teachers and communication ensures that they can contribute to the everyday running of the school (Aubrey, et al, 2013). Participative leadership enhances motivation and is considered effective in advancing performance due to its ability to identify new ideas that would otherwise go unutilised.
Transformational leadership: Leaders depicting transformational leadership lead by showing concern to personal development of followers, such that they are committed to ensuring that they can discover their potential by acting as their role models. Through providing them with the required knowledge and resources, transformational leaders develop their followers into leaders and moral leaders through inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, idealised influence and individualise consideration (Hughes, 2014).
In ECE, this plays a role in enhancing motivation and thus high performance of teachers; consequently contributing to changes in school education. Transformational leadership is such that both the leaders and followers learn from each other and is therefore not about power holding.
Situational leadership: A commonly used leadership style is situational leadership, where leaders tend to apply different approaches in dealing with different issues. This according to Wieczorek-Ghisso (2014) is an approach which in the early years education context is based in levels of competency, such that continuous professional development is enabled. This is evidenced through the Blanchard model which provides four different leadership styles for four competence levels identified.
Blanchard’s quadrant, consists of four leadership styles namely directing, coaching, supporting and delegating. Each style is useful for different competency levels through which staff go through before they can be considered highly effective to work without much support.
Blanchard’s first competence level consists of staff portraying high commitment and low competence. These are members who are probably new in context and therefore lack the necessary skills to carry out required activities. This group may display high enthusiasm and willingness to learn but lack the skills to perform effectively. The suggested leadership style is the ‘directing’ approach, aimed at providing them with guidance to undertake activities through providing specific instructions and making follow up.
An employee who effectively succeeds in this quadrant such that they no longer require close supervision then moves to the second quadrant, representing low or some competence and low commitment. This group requires ‘coaching’ as the leadership approach. This requires leaders to explain the importance of task completion and monitoring of progress while providing encouragement and support.
When a staff is ready to move to the next quadrant, this means that they no longer need coaching but rather ‘supporting’. These are staff with high competence but with variable commitment. While they may have adequate experience, such teachers may lack confidence, motivation or initiative to undertake independent tasks. By supporting their daily activities, a leader can ensure that staff effectively accomplish tasks and that they develop high commitment.
This means that they are ready to graduate to the next quadrant, consisting of staff with high commitment and high competence. These are individuals who have mastered their roles and who are confident in their ability, experienced, knowledgeable and self-motivated, such that they do not require much supervision. In this situation, the leader employs ‘delegating’ approach, such that these individuals may be trusted with responsibilities without the need for monitoring or direction.
The model is considered effective because it aims at gradually developing staff capabilities to ensure that they can effectively respond to delegated tasks. It considers the different needs of staff and the required form of support needed to enhance competency and is thus considered an effective approach to leadership.
Leadership is an undertaking that requires individuals to demonstrate their ability to influence processes and other people for the attainment of set goals, such that leaders are expected to possess certain qualities that differentiate them from others (Ang, 2012). It is not any different in early childhood and pedagogical leadership, such that the following qualities of a leader ensure enhanced outcomes. Teachers with early childhood development degree give them the right skills to help every child learn. Practically speaking, teachers of early education of children must possess certain qualities that will enable them to motivate children along with finding joy every day (Aubrey, 2011).
When it comes to young children, leaders having the confidence of working with the children require enthusiasm and dedication to the work. Only this way, they could think of achieving the successful completion of their leadership duties. Teachers should have the enthusiasm to unlock each child’s door to learning. In addition, every child is different which makes the job even more challenging; thus requiring a patient nature along with good sense of humour to help the teacher to face this sloping path of ups and downs every day.
Every child has a different learning style and personality when he comes to school for early education. Each child would have his or her own style of doing anything. Due to this reason, teacher must always respect the differences and mange to teach in each child’s style rather than imposing on the child to adapt another style. Furthermore, each day teaching young children and at the same time educating them requires creativity.
Adapting to the style of learning that each child possess is flexibility. Regardless, the planning a teacher has done for each day, there should be flexibility to handle all the glitches that can throw off the day. A successful early childhood teacher would be the one who is always creative and flexible to make each day a positive one.
An effective pedagogical leader takes approaches that are unique and whose execution ensure that organisational goals and objectives are met. This skill requires critical thinking to ensure that ideas and strategies set the organisation apart from competitors through quality outcomes. Additionally, an inspirational leader motivates followers to perform by helping them discover their strengths.
He or she should be capable of influencing followers to perform by helping them discover their potential, providing them with the needed guidance and rewarding good performance (Murray & Clary, 2013).
Contemporary leadership literature indicates that active involvement of employees and other stakeholders in leadership decisions and undertakings can have an influential role on organisational outcomes (Grant, 2016). In early education, there is need to involve teachers, boards, students and the community in leadership, thus ensuring that the management can understand what the needs of others are.
When leadership considers the input of others, the likelihood of success is enhanced through diversity in ideas. In a world where leadership entails greater involvement of stakeholders in leadership and decision making, having a leader who is open and accommodating can have a considerable impact on the organisation. In early education, being open can encourage contribution from followers and thereby improve the outcome of schools.
Every leader’s mandate is to achieve the organisation’s goals and objectives and thus contribute to the overall performance of the organisation. In this relation, a leader must not lose focus on the main goals that the organisation seeks to achieve (Grant, 2016). This ensures that he or she can effectively lead others in achieving the goals, correct deviations, mentor and encourage others to achieve.
In doing so, the ability to influence others through endowing them with the power to perform is considered a major leadership quality. Leaders in early childhood should not only provide teachers with the necessary skills to perform tasks but they should also build their capacity to perform roles that are considered as being beyond their level, including independent decision making (David, 2012).
A leader should be concerned about the welfare of others, such that their decisions should be considerate about the feelings of others. This is essential in ensuring that followers feel appreciated, which promotes their productivity and willingness to contribute in organisational activities (Cheng, 2013). Being collegial involves recognising every individual as being important and avoiding self-exalting behaviour.
An effective leader sees themselves as part of the team and thus encourages others to work to work together towards achieving the organisation’s goals (David, 2011). This demonstrates the adoption of a give-and-take approach, such that the leader can learn from followers, just as followers learn from them.
Developing skills necessary to enhance the performance of early education institutions is imperative in enhancing pedagogical leadership. Waniganayake (2014) notes that while a majority of institutions have ECE graduates, most of these individuals are not equipped with the leadership strategies necessary to enhance performance. Waniganayake (2014) further notes that given the budding nature of ECE, the number of schools has grown significantly, leading to the demand for managers and principals.
This means that more ECE teachers find themselves in positions of leadership when they are fresh graduates with minimal knowledge and skills on leadership. In order for them to successfully execute the mandate given to them, such teachers require training to help them acquire the necessary leadership skills and qualities. This may be enhanced through different approaches as discussed below.
Learning communities
Group of individuals when come together to share passion and interest in collaborative learning is known as professional learning communities. Individuals participating in this learning communities build up knowledge through their interactions. There is a need of facilitator who helps them to start a dialogue of ideas that could enhance the connection to values and perspective. The professional learning communities is a powerful staff development strategies to help shift the focus from teaching to learning. (Coughlin & Baid, 2013)
Giving Time to absorb
Time is very precious and a necessity for any skill or development to be fully absorbed by both children and adults in the early learning environment. It is often practiced that learning communities make quick fixes and single training session to introduce change. However, to make changes sustainable, educators must be given time to share their complexities and practice growth in collaborative work.
Selection of Pedagogical Leaders for preschools
The building of strong leadership in the field, teacher’s education serves as an important role for building new resources and learning environment for the children. Student teachers should be selected on the merit of their experience that includes teamwork, engagement with kid and reviews from their pedagogical courses. These pedagogical leaders are also asked to provide a reflection of their leadership journey and opinions for life-changing experiences.
While the above discussion demonstrates approaches to developing pedagogical leadership skills, it is notable that there are various issues related to early years’ leadership that could affect such processes. These impact the outcome of pedagogical leadership and thus require to be addressed in order to address the challenges witnessed in early years leadership are discussed as discussed below.
Like in any other profession, the issue of age in leadership is prominent and the question of the age at which an individual can take up leadership is of concern. In ECE, a high number of young professionals are increasingly joining leadership, more so with the increase in the number of institutions and the consequent demand for managers and principals. Whether these individuals, some who are fresh from college have the required skills and capabilities is what makes it challenging for them to pursue their careers. This is more so where there the individual needs to manage older staff who may not appreciate their position as leaders.
A significant issue in early education is that individuals in leadership are not as adequately remunerated as their counterparts in other sectors. Given the significantly low pay among early childhood education professionals, taking up a position of leadership is not as motivating as it would be in other sectors where it would come with attractive perks. As a result, individuals are more likely to be adamant to take up leadership positions because the amount of work involved may not be adequately compensated.
Early childhood education for a considerable portion of its history mostly constituted of a female workforce. According to Siraj and Hallett (2014), early education workforce could comprise up to 98-99% women. This can be attributed to the fact that women were considered more caring and motherly to children, and as playing the nurturing role which they did best (Kelleher, 2011). Mistry and Sood (2013) also note that stereotyping of men who work in early childhood education as either paedophiles or homosexuals has led to slow growth in the number of men in the sector.
This feminisation has an impact on leadership in that men who have since joined early childhood education still find it difficult to settle into the female dominated career. As a result, leadership roles among men tend to be few in the sector. According to Mistry and Sood (2013), the gendered perception about men in the early education profession may lead to leadership prejudice because men still tend to be treated with suspicion when handling children. This could deny men an equal chance at being in leadership positions despite being qualified.
Leadership remains a challenging undertaking and some individuals tend to shy away from such responsibility. This means that despite their qualifications, they may be reluctant to lead. According to Mistry and Sood (2012), early years leaders tend to be reluctant on taking on the leadership of whole schools because they believe that it is not given adequate significance.
In addition, some leaders are reluctant to take on management roles because they feel that such responsibilities divert their attention from their preferred role as child developers and educators. Mistry and Sood (2012) add that reluctance could also be based on lack of confidence in their level of training on leadership such as adult management and budgeting among others. Reluctance may also be observed among males, mostly due to the desire to remain inconspicuous based on the feminisation issue discussed above.
A major issue is the existence of the hierarchical leadership mentality in some institutions. Some early childhood schools are still run using the traditional leadership approaches, such that it becomes difficult for an inclusive workplace to be maintained. This may impact leadership effectiveness and consequent leadership outcomes.
The effectiveness of pedagogical leadership in ECE can be measured against the learning outcomes of children, such that the key role played by school principals can be recognised based on the performance of their schools. However, leadership issues discussed above must be addressed in order to ensure that leadership is enhanced for better outcomes.
An important aspect to consider is the defeminisation of the profession. Currently, the profession still remains a female dominated field and encouraging men to participate would play a relevant role in enhancing leadership efficiency. To succeed in this, there is need to eliminate the stereotypes surrounding men as early childhood educators and instead advocate for male participation in ECE leadership.
Achieving high level motivation as far as leadership is concerned is a challenging task for this sector, given the low motivation to lead. To achieve this, authorities in ECE must recognise that leadership in ECE is just like leadership in other professions and that there is need to motivate leaders through improved pay and providing opportunities for skill development (Jor’dan, et al, 2013). Mentorship would work effectively in promoting performance of upcoming leaders and ensuring that they remain focused.
It is apparent that individuals in ECE are increasingly taking up leadership positions at a young age, which implies that their leadership skills may not be well developed. In this relation, leadership should be incorporated into graduate programs to ensure that leadership in an ingrained skill among ECE graduates. By preparing graduates for leadership as part of their learning objectives, it is easier for them to fit into leadership positions.
It is important to recognise that children are emotionally bonded to their parents. The workforce in early year education is most comprises of female. The Daycare Trust reports that 97.5% of the workforce for childcare comprises of females. This gender discrimination in child care needs to end. Men should be actively involved in this workforce. Other than this, research also tells that there is a strong need for collaborative leadership training for pedagogical leaders for better future of early childhood education (Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2007).
Bring the educators and parents together with the photos of children with observations of children behaviour when engaged in focused activity. Start the conversation by asking questions like: What appearance can be noticed from child’s face when focused in any activity? What interests him the most? How much child tries to give effort to area of his interest? How child’s point of view can be considered a factor of influence for the thinking of educator?
Importance of Home Learning
Other than preschool learning at early age, EPPE study has found out that children’s intellectual and social development is more influenced through Home Learning Environment (HLE) then by their parent’s education, occupation, and income. Due to this, the study also concludes that children’s learning by their parent’s support is far more important than who the parents are.
The study clearly suggests that the parents should opt for giving more time and affection to their children. Children need a healthy environment to get morally stronger. In this fast-moving world, people have generally less time for their children due to work load and professional responsibilities. That is why there is preschool where children are taught in a proper systematic way to nourish their skills and to provide them with the environment which they couldn’t get at home (Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2006).
Leadership in the context of early childhood education has recently been illuminated as an important aspect in determining the quality of outcomes among children. Evidently, effective leadership in ECE is directly related to the performance of early years institutions and the need to develop such skills is necessary. This paper discussed the concept of pedagogical leadership as it applies to early childhood education, with specific attention to the nature and facets of leadership, the application of leadership styles, qualities of good leadership and the challenges facing effective pedagogical leadership in ECE.
It can be established that pedagogical leadership in ECE has not effectively matured and that there are certain issues that still require to be addressed in order for institutions to function effectively. However, training and application of effective leadership styles could play an important role in enhancing leadership outcomes in ECE settings.
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