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Regionalism and Decentralization

Regionalism and Decentralization

Abstract

Decentralization is a longstanding but still developing concept that is yet to find a coherence definition and measurement model. The lack of mutual definition of decentralization and a measurement model makes it difficult to implement it and monitor the outcomes of the same in countries that have adopted it. This explores the concept of decentralization, with particular interest in Kenya which recently adopted devolution in its new Constitution of 2010.

The first part of the paper deals with the definition of decentralization. While the definition of the decentralization is still an issue, the paper defines it as the transfer of power and resources away from the central government. The concepts in this definition include ‘transfer’ and ‘decentralized system’. The second part of the paper deals with objectives.

The concepts under this subheading include; definition, measurement, and effectiveness. The third subheading is types of decentralization. This is a very important part of the paper as it distinguishes between the various designs and their effectiveness. The concepts under this subheading include; delegation, deconcentration, devolution, fiscal decentralization, political decentralization, and administrative decentralization.

The fifth subheading is on measuring decentralization. Concepts include ‘interrelated’ and ‘confirmatory factor analysis’. The paper has explored literature from various authors on the subject. The definition and types of decentralization are based on theoretical framework, while measurement is based on empirical studies.

Definition of decentralization

Whereas developing governments such as Kenya are shifting to decentralization as a way of promoting service delivery, the definition of decentralization remains an unsettled issue. In essence, there’s no mutual agreement in regards to the definition of decentralization and the manner in which decentralization should be measured. Nevertheless, most scholars refer to decentralization as the transfer of power and resources away from the central government (Schneider, 2003). A decentralized system is one in which a central authority plays a lesser role in one or all these dimensions.

Kenya is an elaborate developing country that recently adopted a devolution policy in its 2010 Constitution. The Constitution provides for fiscal, administrative and political decentralization through the creation of a new layer of county governance. The sweeping policy changes in Kenya have resulted in a new regime of governance comprising of a national government and 47 county governments (Boex & Kelly, 2011).

The 2013 elections marked the official launch of decentralization, which resulted to the election of 47 governors and county assemblies. This system of decentralization has presented both benefits and limitations in governance. The aim of decentralization in Kenya is to promote public participation in governance.

Objectives

This paper looks into decentralization with a keen eye on its definition, types and measurement models. The aim of the paper is to establish the effectiveness of decentralization in developing countries with a close interest on Kenya’s context. This paper demonstrates that decentralization is neither bad nor good when it comes to macroeconomic stability, equity, or efficiency, but rather is outcomes highly depends on institution-specific model (Litvack, Ahmad & Bird, 1998).

Types of decentralization

Care must be observed when defining decentralization since it takes different dimensions and forms. There are varied institutional restructurings encompassed in the term, decentralization, thus highlighting the possibilities of many variants operating simultaneously in a country or even a sector. When establishing different types of decentralization, it is important to distinguish among devolution, delegation and deconcentration (Litvack, Ahmad & Bird, 1998).

Devolution involves the transfer of management, financial and decision-making authority by the central government to quasi-autonomous governance units. Kenya has a devolved government, in which responsibilities for services have been transferred to county governments. County governments have power to make investment decisions and raise their own revenue.

Delegation, on the other hand, refers to a form of decentralization in which public administration functions and decision-making responsibilities are transferred from the central government to local units of government. Although these units are not entirely controlled by the central government, they have an ultimate accountability to it. In this design, the local government acts as an agent of the central government and thus aims at fulfilling the interests of its principal.

The third type of decentralization is deconcentration, which involves the transfer of certain central government responsibilities to regional units. This type does not involve the transfer of authority to local units, implying that there will be minimal limitations or benefits of decentralization to be realized.

Schneider (2003) suggests three core dimensions of decentralization: political, administrative and fiscal decentralization. These dimensions determine the degree to which intergovernmental relationships are devolved, deconcentrated or delegated (Litvack, Ahmad & Bird, 1998). Political decentralization involves the transfer of political functions of governance from the central government to regional governments.

Political decentralization theories deal with aggregation, contestation, participation, articulation, organization, and mobilization of interests. According to Fox and Aranda (1996), a decentralized political system is one in which local political issues and actors enjoy partial independence from the central authority. Administrative decentralization involves the transfer of autonomy from the central government to regional governments.

Public administration theories focusing on decentralization deal with modern bureaucracies. In the Kenyan context, the Constitution provides for devolution, which gives autonomy to the county government to exercise control and power over their territories. There are great hopes that decentralization will impact positively on service delivery, job creation and governance.

However, Kenyan citizens are not in a proper position to participate fully in governance due to difficulties encountered in accessing basic information about project implementation, expenditures, budgets, policies, and local development priorities.

Fiscal decentralization involves the transfer of fiscal impact from central government to regional authorities. Fiscal federalism theories focus on maximization of social welfare, with the ultimate goal of promoting distributive equity, allocative efficiency, and economic stability. Critics of fiscal federalism argue that fiscal decentralization focuses majorly on demand efficiency while ignoring supply efficiency (Prud’homme, 1995).

In addition, fiscal federalism assumes certain hypotheses that are not applicable in developing countries. For instance, whereas fiscal federalism assumes that taxpayers in all jurisdictions express their interests through their votes, this is not what happens in Kenya. Voters in Kenya usually cast their votes in line with their political party, tribal, or personal loyalties.

Measuring decentralization

Efforts towards measurement of decentralization are still in their formative stage (John & Chathukulam, 2003). This is because of the lack of common standards for measuring decentralization and also the little agreement concerning the very meaning of decentralization (Vengroff & Salem, 1992).

Vengroff & Salem (1992) adopted a hypothesis that decentralization leads to quality governance in developing countries. For purposes of providing an empirical ground for a comparative evaluation, the authors established a model based on the commitment, intensity and scope of decentralization in a country. In their comparative assessment, the authors found that decentralization in Tunisia resulted to good governance.

Further studies on measurement of decentralization were done in the early 21^st Century by John and Chathukulam (2003) and Schneider (2003). According to Schneider (2003), the three dimensions of decentralization are closely interrelated. Nevertheless, it is not clear as to the extent to which these dimensions are interrelated. This ambiguity may cause confusion when measuring the outcomes of each dimension in a system such as Kenya where all dimensions are applied.

Schneider (2003) proposes a measurement model for decentralization. The author, however, cautions on the shortcoming of this model in regards to the likelihood of one dimension simultaneously picking up elements of the other dimensions. Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized in testing the hypothesis that all the dimensions consist of measurable indicators. Indicators for political decentralization include state and municipal elections.

Indicators for administrative decentralization include transfers and taxation as a percentage of subnational revenues and grants. Indicators for fiscal decentralization include county revenues and expenditures as percentage of national revenues and expenditures respectively.

Conclusion

Effective decentralization can be achieved if there are sufficient resources and powers from the central government, and measures are implemented to enhance accountability of bureaucrats to elected representatives and accountability of representatives to the citizenry (Manor, 1995).

Accordingly, a properly balanced decentralized system can produce such benefits as reduced absenteeism by local government officials, reduced corruption, enhanced two-way information flow between the government and the public, increased public participation in governance, and greater responsiveness (Speer, 2012). On the other hand, decentralization has such limitations as the inability to promote poverty alleviation.

References

Boex, J., & Kelly, R. (2011). Fiscal Decentralization in Kenya: A Small Step or Giant Leap?.

John, M. S., & Chathukulam, J. (2003). Measuring decentralisation: the case of Kerala (India). Public Administration and Development, 23(4), 347-360.

Fox, J. A., & Aranda, J. (1996). Decentralization and rural development in Mexico: community participation in Oaxaca’s Municipal Funds Program. Center for Global, International and Regional Studies.

Litvack, J. I., Ahmad, J., & Bird, R. M. (1998). Rethinking decentralization in developing countries. World Bank Publications.

Manor, J. (1995). Democratic decentralization in Africa and Asia. IDS bulletin, 26(2), 81-88.

Prud’Homme, R. (1995). The dangers of decentralization. The world bank research observer, 10(2), 201-220.

Schneider, A. (2003). Decentralization: conceptualization and measurement. Studies in Comparative International Development, 38(3), 32-56.

Speer, J. (2012). Participatory governance reform: a good strategy for increasing government responsiveness and improving public services?. World Development, 40(12), 2379-2398.

Vengroff, R., & Salem, H. B. (1992). Assessing the impact of decentralization on governance: a comparative methodological approach and application to Tunisia. Public administration and development, 12(5), 473-492.

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Effectiveness of the Autism Society

The Autism Society of Los Angeles (ASLA)

The autism society of community is based in the state of Los Angeles. It is also referred to as ASLA and it deals with taking care of the autism children living within the larger community of Los Angeles (Koegel et al., 2013). Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (2013) asserts that the autism community has an overall aim of ensuring they have made a major differences in the lives of the people living with the autism conditions.

Furthermore, the families of the children suffering from autism make use of the services being provided by the community. The autism community has also employed a lot of health care professionals who take care of the children suffering from mental challenge.

The autism community was created in the year 1965 (Koegel et al., 2013). It was created when the abnormality condition was not highly known among the community members. It is considered one of the oldest, as well as the largest, in terms of taking grass root measures in Los Angeles. It has over 45 years of expertise in taking care of the autism children (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013).

This is due to the fact that it provides a lot of information concerning people suffering from autism while at the same time carrying out adequate research concerning the issue. The total number of members of ASLA community exceeds 120,000 where the supporters have remained connected in a very functional network system (Koegel et al., 2013). According to Koegel et al. (2013), they are connected in over 150 chapters in the whole of Los Angeles.

Thu, the community has also come up with objectives. First, it aims at raising money, both locally and in outside organizations, in order to cater for the demands made by the people suffering from autism. Secondly, ASLA has also been able to bring together the professionals, the interested individuals, the supporters, and the collaborators of the community in order to take care of the needs and requirements of the children suffering from autism.

Community Partnership of the Autism Society of Los Angeles

And Additional Partnership Deemed Important

The Autism Society of Los Angeles has also formed multifaceted partnerships with several important organizations to strengthen its overall operations. The formation of good partnerships has been one of the key pillars that has bolstered the process of effective delivery of the services.

The autism community group has enabled the formation of a very strong bond between the Autism Society National Society and it. Koegel et al. (2013) avers that the major aim of formation of such a partnership is to ensure there is formation of a strong bond between the organization and other related local organization in other parts of the United States.

Apart from that, it has also been able to form strong partnership with other important stakeholders and figures such as the leaders, parents, and the key professionals (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),2013). ASLA is very much aware that the formation of strong bond between it and the parents of children suffering from autism acts a very important stepping stone in building a strong bond in enhancing the process of services delivery.

The whole process has helped the parents to develop trust and confidence with the operations being carried out by ASLA, thus, acting as an important facilitator in compelling the parents to entrust it with the taking care of their children.

Contrarily, the professionals have also collaborated with the autism community in order to improve the process of service delivery. For instance, the special educationists have been able to access a chance for addressing important issues they would like to see addressed in order to improve the experience autism children gain over the time they spend in ASLA (Becerra et al., 2012).

Moreover, some professionals have also volunteered to offer some of the skills they deem important in trying to improve the lives of the autism children. The local leaders in Los Angeles have also passed beneficial laws that have favored the activities and operations of ASLA. The major aim of passing such laws and amendments is to make sure the children suffering from autism attains optimal support from the government (Hanney et al., 2012).

The leaders have also developed important financial kitties in order to fund important autism programs (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013). Unlike the normal children, those suffering requires special treatment when being educate. As a result, the local authorities have moved in to support ASLA by closing the financial gap for the effective delivery of its services while at the same time meeting its overall objectives.

Nonetheless, the organization can improve its operations by making sure it has formed more partnership with other significant parties. For instance, it should seek forming partnership with significant parties such as the global autism societies (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013).

The move will help incorporate ideas that have far-reaching improvements towards the lives of children suffering from autism. ASLA can also form strong partnership with religious affiliated groups (Becerra et al., 2012). This is due to the fact that such groups are more likely to offer positive contributions towards the lives of the autism children. It can also partner with more charitable organizations in order to expand its educational kitty.

The Cross-Cultural Challenges and the Humanitarian Considerations Enshrined In ASLA

The team of the professional plays a very important role in trying to determine the major decisions made by ASLA during the implementation of the major changes. The pool of professionals have recommended that the autism community should embrace the multicultural system in operating most of its affairs. They understand that the majorities holds different reasons concerning why children suffer from autism.

These may range from mode of vaccination, illnesses, environmental, perennial factors, and the hereditary. Therefore, they have helped to bring all these cross-cultural issues on board in order to come up with a comprehensive system for helping children suffering from the autism condition (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013). The parents have also a very important role especially when it comes to the suggestion of the ways their children should be treated and diagnosed (Becerra et al., 2012).

As such, most of the policies used to govern the operations of ASLA depends on the cultural background regarding the different families that are of interest in the autism community (Becerra et al., 2012). This is due to the fact that the decisions they make are influenced by several cultural factors such as the primary language used, the rituals, the beliefs, the values, the religious backgrounds, and the traditions of the parents.

Despite the incorporation of the cross-cultural set up or issues, there is still scanty availability of information concerning the application of the origin of the autism in children. Thus, there is need for ASLA to listen to the reasons being offered by both parents and the professionals as the main reasons for the occurrence of autism in children.

The move helps to offer an important background for the application of the appropriate remedies during the initiation of intervention procedures (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 2013). For example, children from different cultural backgrounds may have varying length of delayed embracement of their respective languages (Williams et al., 2013). While the trend may seem to be normal, there is need to incorporate important ideas concerning autism in order to determine how appropriate remedies can be applied.

The proposal for such remedies should be the sole purpose of the professionals and the care takers living within the community. Therefore, they would be able to understand how to apply the appropriate remedies based on the cultural setup of the different communities and religious groups living in Los Angeles.

The Autism Society of Los Angeles and how it makes Use of the Economic Benefits Associated with It

The autism community has a lot of economic benefits it can take advantage of to improve the overall delivery of its services towards the children suffering from the mental challenge. The autism community has put it clear that anybody can feel free to offer any form of financial assistance in its official website pages (Hanney et al., 2012). As a result, the move has helped it register tremendous improvements in terms of the bulging of funds kitty.

As a result, ASLA has managed to buy equipment meant for the facilitation of better education for the children suffering from the autism condition (Williams et al., 2013). Apart from that, the autism community has also welcomed volunteers who are interested in working and uplifting the lives of the children suffering from autism (Ennis-Cole et al., 2013). The volunteers have been at the forefront in trying to make sure the autism children are able to learn how to carry out basic events in life such as cleaning of the environment and rehabilitating the environment (Williams et al., 2013).

The larger Los Angeles community is also allowed to visit and entertain the autism children during the major events or days such as the Family Fun Day and other religious holidays such as the Easter Festive (Ennis-Cole et al., 2013). During such events, the children are encouraged to compete in activities such as the painting, mowing grass, and playing in order to create a strong competitive edge among themselves (Hare, 2012). Therefore, they are able to keep on improving their overall mental capability.

Basic Hindrances the Autism Society of Los Angeles Faces When Trying To Look For the Effective Remedies

There is strong belief that autism, among the children, is a sign of curse in respective families. As a result, the strong cultural beliefs has made the treatment and fully embracement of the children suffering from autism a serious challenge (Laugeson et al., 2015). There has been cases where some parents have declined taking their children to the facility in order to access the special needs sighting issues such as curse (Laugeson et al., 2015).

Thus, it is upon ASLA to come up with more appropriate remedies that can create awareness among the parents of such children to embrace the abnormality just like any other. In fact, it should create more open ways of communication in order to promote open sharing of information regarding autism, where some families considered the issues as a taboo (Hanney et al., 2012). This would help erase the anxiety that might be associated with the autism condition among the children in Los Angeles.

In the long run, the launching of a strong campaign, which promotes a strong awareness about the mental condition will help to erase the frustration that might be associated with the parents seeking help (Hare, 2012). The move will promote the development of an open rapport. Some of the therapeutic procedures, which should be encouraged include the embracement of the Positive Behavior Support and the Discrete Trial Training. These will be very important policies that will help to promote the development of a positive feedback concerning the matter.

Vision of the Autism Society of Los Angeles

ASLA has created its vision it would like to see being achieved in the future. The community aims at promoting and facilitating the autism children towards realizing their full potential especially within the Los Angeles State (Special Education Needs, 2013).The major aim of promoting the positive realization of their full potential is to enable them grow into fully responsible citizen, who are able to think independently and have a positive impact towards the rest of the society just like the normal children.

The Proposed Improvement and the Important Changes the Autism Society of Los Angeles Should Make

The organization will need to come up with more appropriate measures that will seek at discrediting the fact that autism children signals a curse towards the respective families. In fact, this is the only way there will be dislodging of such claims (Sun et al., 2015). The community should also mount string campaign network through the social media trying to promote need for being open enough in about the autism in children (Sun et al., 2015).

Feasible Contributions One Can Make towards the Organization’s Activities

There are different ways that one can participate towards improving service delivery in ASLA community. One can become a volunteer where he/she can take the autism children through important life tasks in order to promote their independent thinking such as encouraging them to embrace graphic designs (Sun et al., 2015).

Moreover, it will also be important in trying to promote the funding process of the organization where one can remain very active in looking for donations. Moreover, regular broadcasting and communication process and important progresses being made by ASLA is also another important opportunity a person can seek at participating in, thus, promoting the creation of more awareness.

References

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). (2013). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders, 368-368. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjUgrvXyYPPAhVHVxQKHZyVDzMQFghqMAk&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chla.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fmigrated%2FPublication_Final.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHHdlVaf3nB48xVcN7pT8lMaSe7tg&sig2=uXNpVch4wjiX4wLMnGmb7A

Becerra, T. A., Wilhelm, M., Olsen, J., Cockburn, M., & Ritz, B. (2012). Ambient Air Pollution and Autism in Los Angeles County, California. Environ. Health Perspect, 121(3), 380-386. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjUgrvXyYPPAhVHVxQKHZyVDzMQFggtMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fehp.niehs.nih.gov%2F1205827%2F&usg=AFQjCNFcPWpkNGzFK8bv0my6JPJGKTGWPQ&sig2=7q0dVsEROKdtE2lHCC4oFg

Ennis-Cole, D., Durodoye, B. A., & Harris, H. L. (2013). The Impact of Culture on Autism Diagnosis and Treatment: Considerations for Counselors and Other Professionals. The Family Journal, 21(3), 279-287. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjs4OOqy4PPAhXMJcAKHWSWBfMQFghnMAk&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.unt.edu%2FEnnis-Cole%2Farticles%2FFile2.pdf&usg=AFQjCNFZxuVcu0WEMpcE3EG9lQAafkXkWA&sig2=MFwxkOcRa_svbLMuWNA8ag

Hanney, N. M., Jostad, C. M., LeBlanc, L. A., Carr, J. E., & Castile, A. J. (2012). Intensive Behavioral Treatment of Urinary Incontinence of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Archival Analysis of Procedures and Outcomes from an Outpatient Clinic. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 28(1), 26-31. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjs4OOqy4PPAhXMJcAKHWSWBfMQFgg-MAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fapschool.edu.hk%2F79_Sallows_2005.pdf&usg=AFQjCNG6sS0b_fkwfWE332LYvn62zCTAXQ&sig2=kxoacDR8GxNgLd6ARvdr0A

Hare, D. J. (2012). Developing Psychotherapeutic Interventions for People with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Psychological Therapies for Adults with Intellectual Disabilities, 193-206. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=HY29CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=The+Autism+Society+of+Los+Angeles+PDF+Journals&source=bl&ots=5YdGeWaVd_&sig=BdwEOUcQscyqr2KO2T0IefvQZNk&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20Autism%20Society%20of%20Los%20Angeles%20PDF%20Journals&f=false

Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Ashbaugh, K., & Bradshaw, J. (2013). The importance of early identification and intervention for children with or at risk for autism spectrum disorders. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(1), 50-56. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjs4OOqy4PPAhXMJcAKHWSWBfMQFgg0MAM&url=https%3A%2F%2Feducation.ucsb.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fautism_center%2Fimages%2FKoegel%2C%2520Koegel%2C%2520Ashbaugh%2C%2520Bradshaw%2520%282014%29%2520The%2520importance%2520of%2520early%2520identification%2520and%2520intervention%2520for%2520children%2520with%2520or%2520at%2520risk%2520for%2520autisms%2520pectrum%2520disorders_0.pdf&usg=AFQjCNG8CVkEAwgqf8WhIOqRvb0aIfBZyw&sig2=_Ry3inQrgKJQwDOh8iutHg

Laugeson, E. A., Gantman, A., Kapp, S. K., Orenski, K., & Ellingsen, R. (2015). A Randomized Controlled Trial to Improve Social Skills in Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: The UCLA PEERS Program. J Autism Dev Disord, 45(12), 3978-3989. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjUgrvXyYPPAhVHVxQKHZyVDzMQFghPMAU&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.semel.ucla.edu%2Fsites%2Fall%2Ffiles%2Fpage%2Fassociated%2FLaugeson%2520et%2520al%25202015.pdf&usg=AFQjCNGC854UjImjtTTxHiL8ZcdwsMZzmA&sig2=P6nPMak6SB4b0A_gZlrTAw

Special Education Needs. (2013). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2943-2943. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search’q=related:www.autismarabia.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Encyclopedia-of-Autism-Spectrum-Disorders-Facts-On-File.pdf+Special+Education+Needs.+%282013%29.+Encyclopedia+of+Autism+Spectrum+Disorders,+2943-2943&tbo=1&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiphruO1obPAhXJC8AKHZiKCZIQHwg-MAU&biw=1366&bih=657&bav=on.2,or.&bvm=bv.132479545,d.ZGg&ech=1&psi=x_fUV-mGGsmXgAaYlaaQCQ.1473654050794.3&ei=x_fUV-mGGsmXgAaYlaaQCQ&emsg=NCSR&noj=1

Sun, X., Allison, C., Matthews, F. E., Zhang, Z., Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., & Brayne, C. (2015). Exploring the Under-diagnosis and Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Conditions in Beijing. Autism Research, 8(3), 250-260. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aur.1441/pdf

Williams, M. E., Fink, C., Zamora, I., & Borchert, M. (2013). Autism assessment in children with optic nerve hypoplasia and other vision impairments. Dev Med Child Neurol, 56(1), 66-72. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjs4OOqy4PPAhXMJcAKHWSWBfMQFggeMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oadd.org%2Fpublications%2Fjournal%2Fissues%2Fvol14no2%2Fdownload%2FdeRivera.pdf&usg=AFQjCNGGbDuHSlE-Vqig9stQMMdspS2MOQ&sig2=_ATfQpXLMZrGeTFniOXpYA

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Nurses Role in Pain Management Project Report

Project Report on Nurses Role in Pain Management

Introduction

Pain after surgery is distressing to patients and it is an issue of concern for nurses working in PACU. Ineffective pain management during the immediate postoperative period can prolong patients stay in the PACU especially if the necessary measures are not implemented.. Nurses in PACU have a responsibility to continuously assess and give proper pain treatment to the patient (Tedore, 2015).

During my placement, I noted that nurses play an important role in management of pain during the postoperative period. Therefore they should be equipped with the proper skills and knowledge to be able to provide the best pain management. Furthermore, I realized that, despite the availability of guidelines and variety of tools for pain management, post-operative management of pain is still a challenge (Abrahamson, Fox & Doebbeling, 2012).

Moreover, increased knowledge on pharmacological and non-pharmacological pain management results in better patient outcomes. Also, these nurses should be given ample time to be able to follow the pain management guidelines to ensure proper pain management. My report aims at analyzing from the relevant peer reviewed articles on nurses’ role in management of post-operative pain and nursing issues relating to management of pain during postoperative period putting my experience in the unit into consideration.

Literature Review

Tedore, 2015 conducted a research and found out that proper management of post-operative pain benefits patients in a number of ways. Mostly it contributes to better patient comfort which is key, less cardiac complications and reduced risk of development of deep vein thrombosis and finally the patient recovers within a short period of time.

According to Wilding, Manias & McCoy, 2012 research article, it explained that that improper management of pain is majorly contributed by nurses. The factors that contribute to this include poor assessment of pain, reduced knowledge and skills on pain management, fear of side effects associated with pain management, (Wilding et al. 2012).The research conducted by (Wilding et al., 2002) explored the contributing factors to increased pain during discharge of patients from PACU.

Use of pharmacological and non-pharmacologic therapies in pain management is highlighted in an article by Joshi, Schug & Kehlet , 2014.The article outlined that morphine was mainstay for pain management in PACU. It further suggests the use of the WHO recommended ladder, starting from mild non opioids including acetaminophen and NSAIDs to strong opioids such as morphine which can be used according to severity of the pain score.

None the less, use of ice packs, distraction by use of music and positioning are some of the non-pharmacological therapies. A study was done in PACU and the findings were that use of non- pharmacological therapies together with analgesics yielded better outcomes in pain management(Joshi, Schug & Kehlet, 2014). However, the outcomes varied depending on the type of surgery performed .

According to Ramnytz, Wells & Fleming 2015, the PACU nurse has a role in assessing the associated side effects of the pharmacological agent administered. Relieving pain is the major goal of postoperative pain management and ensuring that minimal side effects results. Opioids are the mainstay of pain therapy.

However they are associated with unwanted effects such as respiratory depression, hypotension and reduced bowel movement (Ramnytz et al., 2015). In PACU, a pulse oximetry is the best tool that can be used to monitor respiratory depression during administration of opioids. However, the best method of monitoring respiratory depression is through observation of the respiratory pattern and the patient’s level of consciousness.

Methodology

During my placement in the Post Anesthetic Care Unit, I interacted and engaged the nurses in discussions pertaining their role in pain management with observations being the key technique.

Discussions

Postoperative nurses have a responsibility in assessment of pain. They should assess paints level of pain using the most effective tool to have the best outcomes. The 10 pain assessment scale is most preferred tool. However, it is important to incorporate both the subjective and objective information to be in a position to determine the most appropriate therapy for pain.

There should be continued documentation of the progress of the patient so as to determine the effectiveness of the therapy and there will be any alteration. The nurse should as well note the source and severity. In the event there is no relationship between the site and severity of pain, it will warrant investigations to determine if there is any related pathology.

Cultural background as well as anxiety is some of the patient factors determine the management of pain therefore the nurse has a responsibility of assessing them and determine if they have an effect on the patient perception. Therefore, these nurses have a role in establishing these factors.

Reflecting my placement in PACU, I appreciated that the hospital has a protocol for management of pain after surgery. For moderate pain, no opioids drugs were used while for severe pain, strong opioids were utilized. I also appreciated use of non-pharmacological therapies in pain management. Use of both pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies increases efficiency (Ramnytz, Wells & Fleming ,2015). Non pharmacological therapies that were utilized included ice packs, music therapy and in deed they were found to be effective.

Literature suggests use of different pharmacological agent in management of pain. Similarly, during my placement, I identified those agents being utilized. For severe pain , opioids were being used while for moderate and mild pain, agents such as tramadol, diclofenac as well as acetaminophen were used.

Nurses were very vigilant and it encouraged me when they assessed the patients often after administration of these agents as the doses were given continuously until the level of pain subsided. According to WHO, recommends the use of a ladder for drug management, during my clinical placement, it was however not applied.Mariano, Miller & Salinas (2013), advocated for use of weak opioids, and NSAIDs in management of moderate pain. However, this was not practiced during my placement.

It is the nurse’s integral duty to assess the side effects of the analgesic agents. Knowledge on mode of action ,drug interaction as well as unwanted side effects so that they can be in a position to observe any side effect of the agent s and act accordingly. Likewise, I noticed that the nurses were aware of the associated side effects of the analgesic agent and they acted appropriately whenever they noticed any deviation from normal. After administration of morphine, the PACU nurses were keen to observe the respiratory pattern of patients to identify if there was any respiratory depression associated with the use of morphine.

Conclusion

My experience in management of postoperative patients in PACU enlightened me on the role of nurses in management of postoperative pain. I realized that continued provision of PACU nurses with the relevant skills and knowledge will go a long way in better management of pain after. The information I found was relevant for them included variety of pain management tools, factors influencing pain management, different therapies of pain management as well as the side effects associated with pharmacological managements. Finally I would recommend the utilization of the WHO ladder for pain management.

References

Joshi, G., Schug, S., & Kehlet, H. (2014). Procedure-specific pain management and outcome strategies. Best practice & research. Clinical Anaesthesiology, 28(2), 191-201.

Kobelt, P., Burke, K., & Renker, P. (2014). Evaluation of a standardized sedation assessment for opioid administration in the post anesthesia care unit. Pain Management Nursing, 15(3), 672-681.

Mariano, E., Miller, B., & Salinas, F. (2013). The expanding role of multimodal analgesia in acute perioperative pain management. Advances in Anesthesia, 31(1), 119-136.

Marshak, C., Bertignoli, T., Mulackal, E., Reyes, E., Duran, M., & Rojo, L. et al. (2014). Excellence in PACU pain management: How is our PACU team terforming? Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 29(5), e17.

McLean, G., Martin, D., Cousley, A., & Hoy, L. (2013). Advocacy in pain management: The role of the anaesthetic nurse specialist. British Journal of Anaesthetic and Recovery Nursing, 14(3-4), 43-48.

Ramnytz, L., Wells, V., & Fleming, E. (2015). An Exploration of the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) nurses’ knowledge level of sedation scoring and pain management options. Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 30(4), e44.

Tedore, T., Weinberg, R., Witkin, L., Giambrone, G. P., Faggiani, S. L., & Fleischut, P. M. (2015). Acute Pain Management/Regional Anesthesia. Anesthesiology clinics, 33(4), 739-751.

Wilding, J., Manias, E., & McCoy, D. (2012). Pain assessment and management in patients after abdominal surgery from PACU to the postoperative unit. Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 24(4), 233-240.

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Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics

Introduction

This report is an analysis of the data generated using SPSS and presented using charts and tables. The report firstly presents the results of selected descriptive statistical analyses. Subsequently, the report summarises the numerical results with descriptive statistics analysis tables or graphs, including the interpretation of these tables and graphs. The fourth section or the report is a presentation of the data regarding numerical results of the inferential statistics. This is followed by a discussion of the same, before a summative conclusion is presented in the last section.

Selected descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics refers to the kinds of data that analysts and researchers use in presenting the characteristics of the sample used in a study. According to Kothari (2004), they are used in checking whether the variables that the researcher has chosen to use violate any assumptions that the researcher might have made, which might be consequential to the findings. Another important function of descriptive statistics used in this section is that they help to answer the core research questions.

In the present study, the descriptive statistics selected are for public use micro data area code (PUMA), house weight (WHTP), state code, (ST), numbering of persons (NP), rooms (RMS), bedrooms, (BDS), and household income (HINCP). The data retrieved was as presented in table 1 below

Table 1: PUMA, ST, BDS, RMS, mean, median, and standard deviation

	RMS	BDS	ST	PUMA
N	Valid	4911	4911	4911	4911
Missing	0	0	0	0
Mean	4.87	2.61	15.00	248.05
Median	5.00	3.00	15.00	302.00
Std. Deviation	1.933	1.197	.000	81.573
Minimum	1	0	15	100
Maximum	9	5	15	307

Table 2: RMS, BDS, ST, and PUMA, frequency table

PUMA	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	100	951	19.4	19.4	19.4
	200	782	15.9	15.9	35.3
	301	407	8.3	8.3	43.6
	302	412	8.4	8.4	52.0
	303	425	8.7	8.7	60.6
	304	536	10.9	10.9	71.5
	305	365	7.4	7.4	79.0
	306	456	9.3	9.3	88.3
	307	577	11.7	11.7	100.0
	Total	4911	100.0	100.0
NP	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	0	452	9.2	9.2	9.2
	1	970	19.8	19.8	29.0
	2	1491	30.4	30.4	59.3
	3	711	14.5	14.5	73.8
	4	619	12.6	12.6	86.4
	5	318	6.5	6.5	92.9
	6	161	3.3	3.3	96.2
	7	94	1.9	1.9	98.1
	8	30	.6	.6	98.7
	9	20	.4	.4	99.1
	10	18	.4	.4	99.5
	11	7	.1	.1	99.6
	12	7	.1	.1	99.7
	13	5	.1	.1	99.8
	15	1	.0	.0	99.9
	16	2	.0	.0	99.9
	17	1	.0	.0	99.9
	19	2	.0	.0	100.0
	20	2	.0	.0	100.0
	Total	4911	100.0	100.0
RMS	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	1	185	3.8	3.8	3.8
	2	345	7.0	7.0	10.8
	3	677	13.8	13.8	24.6
	4	896	18.2	18.2	42.8
	5	1110	22.6	22.6	65.4
	6	768	15.6	15.6	81.1
	7	438	8.9	8.9	90.0
	8	234	4.8	4.8	94.7
	9	258	5.3	5.3	100.0
	Total	4911	100.0	100.0
BDS	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	0	211	4.3	4.3	4.3
	1	683	13.9	13.9	18.2
	2	1208	24.6	24.6	42.8
	3	1810	36.9	36.9	79.7
	4	688	14.0	14.0	93.7
	5	311	6.3	6.3	100.0
	Total	4911	100.0	100.0

From the data in table 1 above, a number of observations are blatant and clear. The first is that the means of RMS, BDS, ST and PUMA are 4.87, 2.61, 15, and 248.05 respectively. For rooms, the number of rooms, the median score was 5, where the scores varied from 1 to 9. This means that the majority of respondents have about 5 rooms.

When it comes to the number of bedrooms, the median score was 3, whereas the mean was 2.61, this shows that the majority of respondents have 3 rooms. The state code was 15 for all respondents whereas the mean for public use of micro data area code was 248.05. The mean was 302, whereas the minimum and maximum scores were 100 and 307 respectively.

From table 2, a number of assertions can also be made, and the first is about PUMA. From the table, the evidence shows that for public use of micro data area code, 19.4% of the respondents scored category 100, which made it the highest selected category, whereas 15.9% of the respondents checked 200, making it the second most selected category. Comparatively, 301 was the least selected category at 8.7%.

Additionally, for number of bedrooms, a majority of the respondents said that they had three bedrooms in their houses, and this represented 3.9% of all responses, closely followed by those with two bedrooms at 24.6%. At the same time, the number of people living in houses with no bedrooms or five bedrooms was the least with a score of 4.3% and 6.3% respectively.

This data is in line with the data about rooms, which shows that 22% of respondents stay in a five-roomed apartment, followed by 18% and 15%, who stay in four and five roomed houses respectively. Because of the number of rooms and bedrooms in their houses, it is plausible to conclude that a majority of the respondents stay with other people or expect other people to visit often, which are why they have extra rooms in the house, as well as extra bedrooms in the house.

Additionally, from the data, it is obvious that a majority of the people are in the middle between the rich and the poor, as those who stay in studio apartments are as marginal as those who stay in luxury apartments that can contain at least five bedrooms. .

Selected inferential statistical analyses

Inferential statistics refer to the data analysis methods where the researcher or analyst uses a given set of data to determine whether there is a link between given variables being studied. By using inferential statistics, the researcher can tell whether the relationship that seems to exist between variables is a fact, or whether it is not a fact. According to Kothari (2004), a number of measures and techniques can be used to accomplish inferential statistics. The two types of inferential statistics used in this report are correlation and regression analyses.

Correlation was conducted using the Pearson correlation analysis. Pearson correlation analysis is employed to measure the linear relationship between two or more variables. The value of Pearson correlation ranges between -1 and +1, with -1 indicating negative correlation, 0 indicating no correlation and +1 indicating positive correlation between the variables. Besides, the closer the value is to +1, the stronger the relationship between the variables (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2007). For this study, the data is as shown below.

According to table 4-20, Sig. (2-tailed) =0.000, and all the four variables have a significant correlation at the 0.01 significant level. Pearson correlation between PUMA and NP is .110, whereas the relation between PUMA and BDS and RMS is .042 and .067 respectively. This shows that there is a weak but positive relationship between PUMA and all the independent variables, although the weakest relationship is that between PUMA and BDS.

Table 3: Correlations

	PUMA	NP	BDS	RMS
PUMA	Pearson Correlation	1	.110(**)	.042(**)	.067(**)
Sig. (2-tailed)		.000	.003	.000
N	4911	4911	4911	4911
NP	Pearson Correlation	.110(**)	1	.447(**)	.396(**)
Sig. (2-tailed)	.000		.000	.000
N	4911	4911	4911	4911
BDS	Pearson Correlation	.042(**)	.447(**)	1	.878(**)
Sig. (2-tailed)	.003	.000		.000
N	4911	4911	4911	4911
RMS	Pearson Correlation	.067(**)	.396(**)	.878(**)	1
Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000	.000
N	4911	4911	4911	4911

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Regression analysis helps estimate and investigate the association between variables. R Square is used to show the degree of relationship between the dependent and independent variables. R Square value ranges between 0 and 1, and the closer the value is to 1, the stronger the relationship between the variables further indicating the greater degree to which variation in independent variable explains the variation in dependent variable (Seber and Lee, 2012).

Based on the model summary table 4-21, R stand for the correlation coefficient and it depicts the association between dependent variable and independent variables. It is evident that a positive relationship exists between the dependent variable and independent variables as shown by R value (0.126).

However, the relationship is a very weak one. Besides, it can be seen that the variation in the three independent variables (RMS, BDS and NP) explain 1.6% variation of PUMA as represented by the value of R Square. Therefore, it means that other factors that are not studied on in this study contribute 98.4% of the PUMA programs. This means that the other factors are very important and thus need to be put into account in any effort to enhance PUMA. Additionally, this research therefore identifies the three independent variable studied on in this research as the non-critical determinants of PUMA boundaries.

Table 4: regression analysis results

Model Summary

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.126(a)	.016	.015	80.945

a Predictors: (Constant), RMS, NP, BDS

Further, this research established through the analysis f variance that the significant value is 0.00, which is less than 0.01, therefore the model is statistically significant in foretelling how NP, RMS, and BDS can influence PUMA groupings. The F critical value at the 0.01 level of significant was 26.501. Given that F calculated is greater than the F critical value of 26.501, then it means that the overall model was significant (Seber and Lee, 2012).

ANOVA(b)

Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	520911.120	3	173637.040	26.501	.000(a)
	Residual	32151092.845	4907	6552.087
	Total	32672003.965	4910

a Predictors: (Constant), RMS, NP, BDS

b Dependent Variable: PUMA

At the same time, the beta coefficients also gives significant inferential information. According to the regression coefficients presented in table 4-23, this research found that when all independent variables (the number of persons (NP), number of rooms (RMS), and the number of bedrooms (BDS)) are kept constant at zero, the level of public use micro data area code (PUMA) will be at 231.13. A 1% change in number of persons will lead to an 11.4% increase in PUMA, whereas a one percent change in BDS will lead to a 12.1% changes in PUMA.

Comparatively, a one percent change in RMS will lead to a 12.8 percent change in PUMA. This leads to the conclusion that of the three variavles, RMS leads to the largest impact in PUMA when the three independent variables are pitted together. Further the statistical significance of each independent variable was tested at the 0.01 level of significance of the p-values.

Coefficients(a)

Model		Unstandardized Coefficients	Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
B	Std. Error	Beta
1
(Constant)	231.130	3.161		73.128	.000
NP	4.700	.654	.114	7.181	.000
BDS	-8.222	2.068	-.121	-3.977	.000
RMS	5.384	1.248	.128	4.315	.000

a Dependent Variable: PUMA

In general form, it can be said that the equation used to determine the link between Public use microdata area code, numbering of persons, rooms and bedrooms is of the form:

Y = β₀+ β₁X₁+ β₂X₂+ β₃X₃+ ε

From the equation, β₀ is a constant, whereas β₁to β₃are coefficients of the independent variables. X1 X2 and X3 are the independent variables numbering of persons, rooms and bedrooms respectively, whereas epsilon ε is an error term. Additionally, the dependent variable Y in the equation represents public use microdata area code. Pegging the present discussion in the formula above, the model would be as follows.

Y = 231.130 + .114X1 – .121X2 +.128X3

This means that the public use micordata area code = 231.130 + (0.114 x numbering of persons) – (0.121 x rooms) +(0.128 x bedrooms).

References

Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology, methods & techniques (2nd ed.).New Delhi: Wishwa Prakashan.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research Methods for Business Students. 4th edition. England: Prentice Hall.

Seber, A. F. G. and Lee, J. A. (2012) Linear Regression Analysis. 2nd Edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons

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The Role of Media in Influencing Decision-Making in P-20 Education

Research Question

What is the role of media in influencing decision-Making in P-20 Education?

Rationale

The media, especially television, video, and social media, are often viewed negatively in the education sector. In early childhood and K-12 models of education and in more conservative environments, children are even discouraged from exposure to media such as video and social media, which are considered bad influence over learners. In such surroundings and circumstances, it is perceived that media can only affect education in a negative way.

However, this negative perception about the influence of media on education is fast changing in many settings, institutions, and jurisdictions as more studies unearth the real nature of the correlations between media and learning or education (Jabbar et al., 2014). In recent times, it has become more apparent that media not only affect learners but also decision makers and policymakers in educational institutions.

Decision-making is core to the success of all educational concepts, models, systems and institutions. Given the fundamental influence and role of media in modern educational systems, the media, most likely, influence the people and processes in learning institutions in several ways (Galway & Sheppard, 2015). Thus, the proposed study is justifiable in several ways. First, the study may enable P-20 education stakeholders to establish whether media is a core external force that affects their decision making, thus influencing P-20 education’s relevance and competitiveness in the education sector and in economic circles.

Second, from the study’s findings and recommendations, it may be possible for P-20 education leaders and learners to appreciate the potential role of media as an incentive to decision-making and education improvement. Third, the study may be of help to P-20 education’s stakeholders by highlighting how media can be used to influence federal, state, or local educational policy to favor the pursuit of skilled, knowledgeable, and productive learners and workforce.

Background Information

The P-20 is a model of education that builds on the principle that educational programs, financial and human resources, strategies, performances, expectations, and outcomes should be focused on the early years of learners’ growth and development. Unlike the early childhood and development concept, the P-20 model covers the kindergarten or early childhood years, the K-12 years, and the post-secondary school years.

The main purpose of P-20 education is to ensure that pre-school, K-12, and college years are formative years during which self-discovery ought to be emphasized. Instead of the public education system mandating everything that students learn, educators should be more concerned with preparing learners for their future life’s challenges. The years following the P-12 should be characterized by academic performances and outcomes that would imply quality adult life.

P-20 education also covers learners’ lives during their workforce years. That is, an education should prepare an individual to survive and perform in the workforce long after graduation with post-secondary education. The skills acquired during learning must translate into expertise in the workforce.

Essentially, P-20 education is based on the realization that the knowledge and skills that learners acquire in their early childhood or K-12 education should prepare them for college education and their lives in the workforce. Thus, all the stages of academic development are weighted equally and allocated the deserved financial and human resources and effort.

Numerous studies have been conducted to establish the connection among communication, communication technology, communication media, the learning process, and education. While studies have been done on the influence of media on education in general, no studies have been done to link media and decision-making in the concept of P-20 education. Most studies have just plainly established the relationship between media and education.

In one such study, Cuc (2014) sought to establish the influence of media on both formal and informal education. In the study, Cuc (2014) not only studied the influence of media on learning but also rephrased the research question and hypothesis to help the research establish how media affects the process of learning and the actual and potential relationships between media and learning. The commonest media found to greatly influence education are books, television, radio, video, and social media (Cuc, 2014).

Malin and Lubienski (2014) established that the practical dimensions by which media influences education are the development or inculcation of new interests in learners, adoption of novel leisure-time skills, availability of fresh entertainment options and expanded areas of learner preoccupation.

Malin’s and Lubienski’s (2014) findings concurred with Lubienski, Scott and DeBray (2014) who established that while media has positive influences on education, most learners pick up media messages and turn them into behaviours and cultures, which interfere with learning processes, habits, and activities. Clearly, media influences education in various ways and may possibly greatly influence decision-making in emergent concepts such as P-20 education in the technologically advanced 21^st century.

Data Sources and Collection Methods

The proposed study will combine qualitative and quantitative research approaches to collect and process exhaustive data on the variables and constructs of the study. The study will specifically target P-20 stakeholders as the source of its data and information, targeting a population of 1500 and a sample size of 300. The sample size will be representative of P-20 education officials, educational programme managers, school and college administrators, teachers, local education leaders, education system’s beneficiaries and the public. Selective methods of sampling such as purposive sampling, expert sampling, snowball sampling, modal instance sampling and diversity sampling will be used in the study.

The main reason purposive sampling techniques are preferred for this study is that these techniques enable the researcher to access the targeted sample rather fast (Shields & Rangarjan, 2013). Second, purposive sampling techniques make the identification of the potential respondents with the desired characteristics. Purposive sampling also enables the use of a variety of qualitative research approaches (Mannay, 2010).

Data will be collected using questionnaires, interviews, observations and focus group discussions while data analysis will be done using Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) software and Microsoft Excel. The questionnaires will contain structured and unstructured items to capture qualitative and quantitative data. However, the study’s independent and the dependent variables will be identified prior to the development of the data collection tools.

The analysis and presentation of the findings will be done using inferential and descriptive statistics. The study will use Spearman’s Rho, regression and ANOVA to establish correlation between the dependent and independent variables of the study and establish the role or influence of media on decision making in P-20 education.

Possible Impact on the Field

The proposed study is likely to impact educational policy and advocacy once the role of media in decision-making in P-20 education is established. From the findings of the proposed study, P-20 educationists may be able to design and realign their advocacy efforts champion the preferred educational policies notwithstanding the findings of earlier studies on the role of the media on education. The study may also erase any doubts on the role of media on education that may have been reported without much evidence, particularly on the effects and effectiveness of media on education.

In particular, P-20 educationists and other stakeholders may be able to associate media with educational decision making for the first time. From the proposed study’s findings, educational policy advocates may read implications of media on education that have elided research experts in their interpretation of study findings. Hence, the study may be of great help to the policymaking processes in P-20 education.

The other likely impact of the study is the elimination of the disconnect that exists between high school and college on one hand and adult life on the other. From the study’s findings, educationists may be better placed to give the most appropriate and effective classroom support and guidance to learners that would prepare learners for the challenges of adult life. The study may also help in the better use of media to make educational decisions that would create a seamless kindergarten-to-college education system.

References

Cuc, M. C. (2014).The Influence of Media on Formal and Informal Education.Social and Behavioral Sciences, 143(1); 72.

Galway, G., and Sheppard, B. (2015). Research and Evidence in Education Decision-Making: A Comparison of Results from Two Pan-Canadian Studies. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(1); 10.

Jabbar, H., Goldie, D., Linick, M., and Lubienski, C. (2014). Using Bibliometric and Social Media Analyses to Explore the “Echo Chamber” Hypothesis. Educational Policy, 28(2), 281-305. Retrieved on November 2, 2016 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0895904813515330

Lubienski, C., Scott, J., and DeBray, E. (2014). The Politics of Research Use in Education Policymaking. Educational Policy, 28(2), 131-144. Retrieved on November 2, 2016 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0895904813515329

Malin, J. R., and Lubienski, C. (2014). Educational Expertise, Advocacy, and Media Influence. Retrieved on November 2, 2016 from http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/1706

Mannay, D. (2010). Making the Familiar Strange: Can Visual Research Methods Render the Familiar Setting More Perceptible? Qualitative Research, 10(1): 91.

Shields, P., and Rangarjan, N. (2013). A playbook for research methods: integrating conceptual frameworks and project management. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press.

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Education Reforms for Sustained Change

In the first section of this paper, an analysis of three education reforms in the international, national, and state levels will be provided. The second section will assess the reforms with respect to unanticipated results related to sustaining change. Every Student Succeeds Act, Common Core States Standards, and Interim List of Eligible Programs are the three reforms that will form the basis of discussion.

Reforms are enacted to change public education by making it more accessible, of high quality, and that meets job market standards. Though agencies involved in instituting reforms vary in agenda and motivation, in the last decades, USA and other countries emphasize on reforms that improve student achievements rather than the traditional basis of inputs.

Section 1: Education Reforms

National reforms

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is one of the nationally oriented education reforms that were enacted into public law in 2015 (NCES 2015). As a replacement of No Child Left Behind Act, the reform intends to make the national government get deeply involved in education. ESSA reduced the Department of Education’s mandate over state education programs such that states and districts can set their testing standards, assessments, and involvement procedures.

Though testing standards are not to change, states were given the authority of determining them. Moreover, students are to be examined in math and languages on a yearly basis from grade three to eight, but for grades nine to twelve they are tested only once. The Act mandates schools to assess students at least once in grades three to five, six to 10, and 10 to 12.

The tests may be done to assess thinking skill and understanding through portfolios and projects, by using a single exam, or through numerous assessments. On accountability, states are to provide ESSA plans to U.S.A Department of Education after thorough consultations with various stakeholders. States have the powers to offer input on expected ratings for exam standardization and graduation fees (Ballotedia 2014). Lastly, states are to determine schools that require government interventions to attain the required measurable progress.

State reforms

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) was instituted in 2010, and it’s supposed to feature the required knowledge that K-12 students should acquire in Mathematics and English Language Arts through the 12 grades (DFA 2015). The standards are supposed to establish common education standards in all the states and ensure that the students are adequately prepared for future jobs.

Since it’s difficult to achieve consistent standards in all the states, the government tends to deny funding under Top Program and Federal Race for states that didn’t adopt the common standard. Through the standards, students are to delve into in-depth analysis and understanding with fewer topics being covered.

International education reforms

Interim List of Eligible Programs (ILEP) was established in 2014 under Regulatory Reform of the International Education Sector and the Student Immigration Regime policy. The rules intend to eliminate abuse on student immigration, offer protection to international students, and support education providers that maintain high-quality standards. After the closure of more than ten low-quality providers, the reforms were initiated so that only colleges and universities that offered quality education attracted global students.

The number of courses that were visa eligible significantly reduced and education programs was scrapped from the system (Times 2013). Moreover, schools offering English language courses are supposed to meet certain quality and immigration criteria if they were to be listed on ILEP second edition, GNIB cards including renewals are to be offered for 8 months; learner protection initiated for all programs, advance fees to be secured by schools so as to achieve comprehensive escrow processing, and complete time tables offered to English language students for sessions that the colleges will be on holidays.

Section 2: Unanticipated Results Related to Sustaining Change

National reforms

Unanticipated result: By giving states the authority to determine their testing standards, assessments, and engagement processes, there is a high probability of getting variations of standards across the states to the extent that graduates will possess distinct levels of knowledge and skills.

Analysis: Even though the standards remain the same in all the states, it is not possible for the states to set consistent measures since teachers and education officers are different, funding is different, and school attendance and performance rates differ. Instead of the government getting more involved in establishing standard evaluation and testing measures, the result may be variations education quality and accountability across the states.

Causes of the unanticipated result: The unanticipated variation in knowledge and education development is caused by micro issues including differences in performance and attendance rates, differences in motivation rate, and power control issues. Moreover, the results may be politically influenced plus government funding may differ across the states.

Impact on the sustainability of education reform: The results are negative with respect to the sustainability of education reforms since they lead to variations in the quality of education offered across states and it becomes difficult to rate effectively rate the performance of schools when measurements standards centralized. On the other hand, centralization of measurement standards may lead to sustainability of education reforms since they give the government more mandate over education and through its intensive involvement, implementation of reforms for positive change is highly likely.

State reforms

Unanticipated result: Implementation may only happen in a few states, and it will not be done over the same period.

Analysis: Implementation of the common standards may not materialize over the same period owing to the fact that the process is slow and politicized, costly, requires extensive teacher training and new textbooks. The government did not stipulate how it would offer complete funding of the project and being that states are many, the standards may not be implemented in all the schools.

Causes of the unanticipated result: Micro issues leading to the unintended result are the lack of adequate teacher training and resources including textbooks and computers needed to take the new tests, and exams are to be conducted based on the different standard measures applied in schools. Moreover, the process is politically impacted since legislators are involved, and also state funding is not assured since the government hasn’t identified the sourcing platforms.

Impact on the sustainability of education reforms: The result does not lead to sustained reforms since the implementation is the main aspect of reforms. If the reforms are not implemented at all, or not implemented over the same period, coming up with new reforms would be futile thus it does not lead to sustainability of the reforms.

Global reforms

Unanticipated result: The stringent measures may lead to fewer colleges admitting students with the result being a decrease in education opportunities for international students.

Analysis: When schools are many, majority of students from different backgrounds can access the visa eligible courses but barring some courses, and restricting admissions in the few schools would lead to a reduction in the number of applicants. The majority of people avoid studying abroad due to bureaucracies and a lot of requirements, and since the new reforms intend to raise the admission standards, students will lose opportunities to study their preferred courses.

Causes of the result: Reduction in opportunity levels for international students is macro influenced since standards for determining the quality effectiveness of education providers is done on an international level. The standards determine the type and number of causes that a school can offer, plus requirements for students which are macro managed.

Impact on the sustainability of education reforms: The reform is essential in sustaining education reforms which intend to support the quality provision of education. When admission and education provision measures are stringent, the certified providers compete on the basis of quality leading to improvement of education. Improved education quality is elemental in sustaining education reforms.

Analysis of the unanticipated results

Reforms are mostly instituted to improve education quality by stipulating the core education aspects necessary to equip learners with skills and knowledge relevant to the job market. Moreover, the reforms are also formulated to increase education opportunities for students from different sectors and income backgrounds. However, if the reforms are not followed up with the resources necessary for effective implementation, the expected results may not be forthcoming.

Additionally, unanticipated results happen when all factors necessitating the reforms are not considered. Since it’s not possible to satisfy all stakeholders involved in the process, the government puts in place measures that must be followed by all states and education providers so that the degree of variance is not high.

Education reforms are instituted to improve the quality of education and making it more accessible to students from poor backgrounds. Moreover, international bodies are involved in ensuring that international students are protected and that they get high returns from pursuing the education in foreign nations. Comprehensive analysis of the reforms that ensures all stakeholders are satisfied and efficient implementation are essential in sustaining education reforms.

References

America-Next (2012). K-12 Education Reforms: A Roadmap. America-Next Journal, 3-12. Retrieved from http://americanext.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/America-Next-K-12-Education-Reform.pdf

Ballotpedia (2014). Every Student Succeeds Act. Encyclopedia of American Politics, 1-5. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/Every_Student_Succeeds_Act

Department of Foreign Affairs (2015). Reform of the International Education Sector and Student Immigration System. DFA, 1-23. Retrieved from https://www.dfa.ie/media/embassybrazil/newsevents/Reform-of-the-International-Education-Sector-eng.pdf

Freddy, A. (2013). A Curriculum Crunch for California. Los Angeles Times, 1-4. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2013/apr/22/opinion/la-ed-common-core-20130422

National Center for Education Statistics (2015). State Education Reforms. NCES. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/statereform/aas.asp

Motivation Mystery: How to Keep Employees Productive Article Critique

Motivation Mystery: How to Keep Employees Productive

The article “Motivation Mystery: How to Keep Employees Productive” by Patrick Hull is not only an interesting but also an enlightening resource. Inferring from the article, it is apparent that motivating employees in the workplace to ensure that they remain productive is a current pertinent event, which researchers have to address.

Managers have always focused on providing incentives to the employees to keep them motivated, and hence productivity. Among those that have produced the expected outcomes include bonuses, perks, amenities, education, and positive recognition. While these benefits might be optimal, it is of central importance to go well beyond the practice of providing incentives (Hull, 2013). This is especially due to the notion that incentives may not be sustainable. As such, they may change, and this might correspond with a shift in the motivation depicted by the employees.

For example, if the incentives are scaled down, it means that the worker motivation will also decline. In the light of this, while still providing the incentives, it is important to devise another strategy to maintain the employees’ morale. The course that Zappos, which is an online clothing and shoe company based in Las Vegas, is a benchmark model (Hull, 2013). The firm does not provide extraordinary perks for the employees. Instead, the Chief Executive Officer has created a corporate culture that elicits and maintains happiness, and which builds loyalty among the employees.

To conclude, it is perceptible that organizations have to be highly innovative in their employee motivation practices. Not all methods, such as the provision of integrated incentives, can ensure long-term motivation and productivity subsequently. It is suggested that managers should focus on creating a culture that creates happiness and loyalty among the workers.

Reference

Hull, P. (2013). Motivation Mystery: How to Keep Employees Productive. Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/patrickhull/2013/05/23/motivation-mystery-how-to-keep-employees-productive/#24106dd2f525

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Management style

A consideration of telecommuting from the perspective of managerial decisions means that, a lateral direction model of managerial decisions has to be adopted whereby the manager has to engage employees outside an organizational work place that is centralized (Sardeshmukh, Sharma & Golden, 2012). According to Matthews & Williams (2012), the management style has to change from classical management styles to Laissez-faire management style where most of employees work by telecommuting.

In this style of management, employees are motivated to work independently and allowed to nurture their creativity by getting a chance for their ideas to flourish. The management should then provide guidance when need and facilitate brainstorming in decision-making, which makes the manager to seem more of a mentor instead of a leader (Matthews & Williams, 2012). This makes it difficult to accomplish common objectives, which require frequent meetings to exchange ideas due to lack of trust and teamwork originating from the lack of frequent face-to-face contact (Sardeshmukh et al., 2012).

In this style, management takes a hands-off approach to leadership.

Staff is trusted to do their work without supervision, and they are left to control their decision making and problem-solving.

Management is present at the delegation and delivery stages of work, but otherwise steps back and gives staff the freedom to control their workflow and outcomes. Management is only involved during the process if the staff requests their assistance.

References

Matthews, H. S. & Williams, E. (2012). Telework Adoption and Energy Use in Building and Transport Sectors in the United States and Japan. Journal of Infrastructural Systems, 11(1), 21-30. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0342(2005)11:1(21)

Sardeshmukh, S. R., Sharma, D., & Golden, T. (2012). Impact of Telework on exhaustion and job engagement: A job demands and resources model. New Technology, Work and Employment, 27(3), 193-207. doi:10.1111/j.1468-005X.2012.00284.x

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Employability Skills Research Paper

Employability Skills

Introduction

Effective career readiness for college students requires the acquisition of excellent skills in terms of academic knowledge, technical experience and a collection of set competencies, referred to as employability skills (US Department of Education 2016). Employability skills can be defined as work competencies, which can drive success across all levels of employment in the labor market.

The skills include the ability to assess personal responsibilities and evaluate your performance, ability to improve interpersonally, ability to understand the dynamics of work relationships, and the ability to develop effective strategies for solving work related problems. However, the question is about how one can acquire or develop effective employability skills. The objective of this paper is to discuss the most efficient strategies for developing employability skills.

1.1 How to determine own responsibility

As a Practice Educator in Gold View Hospital, my duties are planning objectives, and monitoring team performance. In addition, I am tasked with the role of coordinating various departments, organizing meetings, and providing an enabling environment for employees to work better. Generally, my duty is to enhance performance objective.

How to enhance performance objective

Performance objective can be enhanced by improving one’s capabilities such as communication skills, problem-solving skills, work and team management skills et cetera.

Effective Communication skills: As a practice educator, my strategy to effective communication involves good listening skills, use of verbal and non-verbal messages. In addition, I should be able to relate well with issues and know when to speak.

Problem solving techniques: The best approach of solving problems includes: problem definition, problem analysis, developing options for solving the problem, selecting the most suitable option, implementing the option, evaluating the outcome, and learning from the problem.

Decision making skills: Before making a decision, it is important to learn and develop your decision within the work requirements. This often calls for embracing intuition approach by applying experience and personal values. Furthermore, the process should encourage reasoning and comprehensiveness of ideas without attaching emotional aspects to decision.

Organizing work: The best approach to handling any given assignment is by writing down every detail needed as well as any related information that you think might be useful to you. Develop a time schedule to ensure that all tasks are prioritized and accomplished within the set timeframe. Consult your friends, tutor, or anyone who might provide important information regarding your assignment.

Embrace leadership skills: Observe good relationship with coreworkers and the institution at large. Make use of negotiation, influence, and persuasion techniques in the case of divergent views.

Team management skills: This is equally an important aspect of increasing performance objective. The skills include effective communication, establishing team virtues, effective decision-making approach, and developing suitable conflict resolution techniques.

Work Ethics: Virtues such as credibility, honesty, industriousness and respect for others are also important factors to developing performance objective.

However, the above-highlighted skills are to some extent too general to bring out an efficient objective performance. Therefore, they can be effective or not depending on a person’s nature and state of mind. However, the efficiency of this skills can be enhanced by addressing several factors considered to be obstacles to their effectiveness.

For instance, to promote aspects of effective communication skills, one should develop effective stress management skills (Robinson, Segal &Smith 2016). Stress and emotions can lead to misinterpretation of other people or project. According to Robinson, Segal &Smith (2016), to deal with stress while communicating one is required to:

Take a moment of calm before you decide whether to continue the conversation or postpone it.
Carry out stress managing activities such as taking some deep breaths, relaxing and clenching muscles, and recalling a sensory image, which is soothing and rich in your memory.
Using humor in the conversation to ease tension and release emotions
Be able to appreciate the concerns of others even though may not appear so big to you

On the other hand, problem-solving techniques can be made better by applying the psychological theory of problem-solving such as the Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (Cooper 2014). Team management, building, and work ethics can be enhanced by introducing motivation and morale boosting factors.

According to Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory, it is believed a happy and motivated person is more productive as compared to an unsatisfied person. Some requirements such as incentives and rewards to recognize people’s efforts will motivate them to be more committed to their work.

1.2 How to monitor and evaluate performance objective

Mind Tools (2016) outlines that the best approach to monitoring and evaluating performance objective is by embracing the SMART technique, which is an acronym for:

S- Specific

M- Measurable

A-Acceptable

R- Relevant

T-time bound

Specific: This describes a project or work regarding what should be done, how it should be done, and the project outcomes in the most observable manner.

Measurable: It describes the objectives of the project in terms of quantitative and qualitative measures, frequency, project costs, and timeframes among others. This is to ensure that the project meets the expectations.

Acceptable/achievable: The aspect of ‘achieving’ involves ensuring that the team is in a position to carry out the assignment, and has the necessary experience and technical skills. In addition, it evaluates whether the objective can be attained within the given timeframes, opportunities, and resources.

Relevant: The techniques applied in carrying out the assignment should be relevant to the objectives and the implementation plan.

Time-bound: This determines the way of achieving the objectives within the set timeframe. It evaluates the progress of the project at specific time intervals. More often than not, timeframes are put in place to create a sense of urgency to help the team to complete the work on time.

1.3 Recommendation

Dubinsky, Jennings & Brans (2010) states that to improve the performance quality in work environment, the following recommendations should be implemented:

Adoption of performance appraisal techniques: Appraisal techniques such as 360-degree performance appraisal should be adopted to help keep employees on track towards their assignments. It involves the process of gathering feedback on individual performance from a variety of sources. It includes self-appraisal, management, appraisal, subordinate appraisal, and peer appraisal.

Self-appraisal enables employees to evaluate their performance, strengths and weaknesses, and achievements. Management appraisal involves the rating of employees’ performance by the senior management. Subordinate appraisal involves the evaluation of employees’ communication and motivating skills, their ability to deliver desirable results, and their leadership qualities.

Salary increments and bonus: This is a motivational approach of getting employees committed to their work. It improves the relationship between the employees and management.

Promoting strengths and minimizing weaknesses: This can be done through a S.W.O.T analysis. It helps to explore new efforts or problem-solving techniques. In addition, it helps in identifying threats, which is a mechanism of minimizing weaknesses.

Developing training programs: Regular training will help to improve the skills of team members.

Rating responsibilities: This includes introducing different ranks and carrying out paired comparison. The aim is to motivate the employees to put in more efforts in order to attain a higher rank.

1.4 Quality improvement through motivational techniques

Motivational theories- Abrahams Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Hierarchy of need theory is essential in understanding motivational factors, human management, training programs, and employee development. Maslow’s theory helps in creating a working environment, which encourages self-actualization (McLeod. 2014). The hierarchy is summarized below;

Fig 1: The Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory.Source: studyob.com

Motivational approaches

Developing a conductive work environment

This includes motivating employees by providing necessary tools and means of performing duties. In addition, management should encourage teamwork, sharing ideas and amicable problem-solving.

Setting Goals

Management should help the junior officers to establish and develop professional goals and objectives. The goals should be idealistic and attainable to prevent people from getting disillusioned.

Giving Incentives

Incentives motivate employees and make them appreciate the nature of their work. They include financial incentives such as cash prizes and rewards as well as non-financial incentives, which include vacation days, or choice of working offices and parking spots.

Achievement recognition

Employees’ achievements should be celebrated through issuing of awards such as employee-of-the-year awards. Achievements should be appreciated by issuing certificates of exemplary performance. Team accomplishment should be celebrated as well.

Sharing Profits

Motivate the team by providing bonus resulting from the accrued profits. This encourages a sense of ownership and pride.

2.1 Developing solutions to work-related problems in a health care environment

Hicks (2016) recommended the following steps of developing a suitable solution to work-related problems: identifying and defining the problem and appreciating the problem as an opportunity, and using a checklist to identify particular aspects of the problem. In addition, explore the root cause(s) of the problem -analyze the root facts of the problem to find out the most relevant information regarding the problem.

Develop options for solving the problem- create several options for problem-solving by being mindful and inclusive of other people’s ideas. Moreover, decide on the most suitable approach- evaluate options and decide on the most appropriate approach to statutory requirements. Implement the technique- follow the project management guidelines while keeping in mind the consequences of the outcome. Finally, evaluate the outcome and learn- evaluate the effectiveness of the solution and recommend which areas are in need of improvements

To effectively apply the above steps, one should develop and employ the following interpersonal skills:

Personal effectiveness- one should embrace leadership qualities such as being impartial, mindful of other people’s ideas, nonjudgmental, influential et cetera
Team player- it is crucial in identifying unique characteristics of an individual. It is significant in choosing the kind of approach of handling work related problems.
Uses of negotiation skills- this involves engaging parties in a negotiation process. Dialogue should be embraced to reach an agreement. This is a win- win outcome for all parties.
Assertiveness – it involves being confident, aggressive and assured that you can effectively manage the problem.

2.2 Effective communication in a health care environment

Verbal and non-verbal communication-Verbal communication can be enhanced through the use of effective communication skills such listening skills, assertiveness, mindfulness, and responsiveness. Non-verbal communication involves the use of electronic means such as e-mails and the use written messages in a professional manner to convey the message (Robinson, Segal & Smith 2016). Using body language -It includes, posture, maintaining eye contact, body gestures, tonal variation, and facial expression to enhance effective means of conveying important messages.

Sending and receiving formal and non-formal feedback from colleagues- this will serve as a reminder to keep the team updated on the activities to be done. Use of ICT as an effective medium of communication – ICT is the most effective way of passing information to a large group of people within the shortest time possible. In a Hospital setting, use of informatics facilitates sharing data, ideas, and conveying important messages within the working environment.

Organizing regular team meetings-Regular meetings provide a medium to discuss the emerging issues, evaluate work progress, and foster the unity of the team.

2.3 Employing Time management strategies

Prioritizing workload- prepare a working schedule of accomplishing duties. Apply the working schedule in a systematic manner.

Setting up work objectives- set up clear objectives to guide the team from straying away from the real issue. It creates a sense of focus by allowing team members to work towards the set goals; thus, reduce time wastage.

Developing appointment schedule- appointment schedules help reduce interference during working hours. Working in a steady as opposed to an erratic manner is essential.

Setting time for learning enables one to improve working skills; thus, improving the quality of work as well as reducing time as a result of uncertainties (Mind Tools, 2016). A reliable estimate of the project creates a sense of urgency and assists in keeping the team focused on accomplishing the assigned duties.

3.1 Working together through team and team building activities

Assigning specific roles to every team member- working together is an inclusive process requiring the active participation of every member.

Mixing skills and styles- this is the best opportunity to explore new skills and styles of developing quality work. In this case, members have an opportunity to showcase their skills.

Identifying roles for the team- team roles and objectives are emphasized to keep members focused.

Stages of team development such as loyalty, dedication, identity, common practices, and health assessment- these stages are essential in reminding members of the best protocol to follow in developing career skills;

Action planning- include time schedules for every activity
Monitoring and feedback- it involves team progress evaluation and results analysis
Exchanging constructive feedback- members give their views on how the process has been conducted

Successful teamwork calls for the development of leadership skills, which includes setting direction, setting the pace and standards, being influential, practicing effective communication, being a motivator, innovative, reliable and consistent. In a healthcare environment, effective leadership involves provision and justification of objectives and contribution; motivating teams and team members to exhibit exemplary commitment; and pay attention to developing quality system performance (Cooper2014).

Based on health-care, an effective leadership recommends:

Providing and justifying clear aim and benefits
Motivating teams and individuals to work effectively
Concentrating on enhancing performance of the system

3.2 Team dynamics in Children wards

Communication barrier– children are unable to express themselves. Embrace good listening skills to understand explanations by parents
Informal and formal setting- the children ward consists of both professionals and civilians. Interpersonal skills are encouraged to meet the objective
Objectives of teams and groups like long-term purposes/strategies
Problem-solving and temporary projects
Flexibility- must be willing to assist whenever called upon. Children need a lot of care which requires one to be flexible to handle them

3.3 Alternative ways of accomplishing tasks in a health care environment

According to Borrill, West & Dawson (1998), tasks in a healthcare environment can be accomplished by;

Setting clear objectives , active participation by individual team members, highlighting on quality patient service through innovation
Develop stress management techniques for team members
Embracing quality meetings, effective integration and communication processes to develop improved service of patient care
Adopt clear leadership skills to enhance the relationship with patients
Observe work ethics

Good leadership skills include setting the course, standards, inspiring, innovative, response, open communication, trustworthy, and reliable (Messum, Wilkes & Jackson 2011).

4.1 Evaluate the tools and methods of developing solution to problem

According to Hicks (2016), the general problem-solving techniques include the following

Identity and define the problem- appreciate the problem as an opportunity. Use a checklist to identify particular aspects of the problem
Explore the root cause(s) of the problem-analyze, the root facts of the problem, to find out the most relevant information regarding the problem.
Develop options for solving the problem- create several options forproblem-solving by being mindful and inclusive of other people’s ideas
Decide on the most suitable approach- evaluate options and decide on the most appropriate approach to the statutory provisions
Implement the technique- follow the project management guidelines while keeping in mind the consequences of the outcome
Evaluate the outcome and learn- evaluate the effectiveness of the solution and recommend on which areas need improvements

4.2 Problem solving techniques apply to different scenarios.

Consider the following settings:

Scenario 1

A member of the team is involved in an accident and that causes him to take some time off for several months. How would the team react initially and how would they handle it as the months go by? As a team leader, I will take the responsibility of informing the team members about one of us getting involved in a road accident. I will organize a compassionate pay visit and encourage all members to participate. During the visit, I will find out doctor’s recommendations involving the anticipated date of recovery and communicate to the team on the expected date of return to work.

I will reassign some of his/ her responsibilities to a relevant group member. At first, the team members will feel remorseful and easily accept taking up of his/her responsibilities. However, as time goes by, the member assigned the duties might start feeling overburdened by the workload. Therefore, I shall design makeshift roles to ensure that his or her responsibilities are shared out to several team members. For the duties that need his /her personal presence, I will reschedule until further notice. Upon recovery, I will lead the team to welcome back our member.

4.3 The potential impact of the problem on the business of Gold view hospital on the implementation of the strategy

The problem wills definitely affecting the quality of service provided. The interim team members will not be able to deliver the most desirable results for lack of enough experience in that particular work. Similarly, some services which require his/her physical presence will not be provided. Furthermore, the members selected to step in will have increased workload as well as less focus on their designated duties. I can say that the solution was partially solved and therefore recommend that we have more members of staff within one docket such that in the absence of one member, team operations are not affected.

Conclusion

Based on the issues outlined in the paper, it is evident that employability skills depend on determining an individual’s responsibility and ways of enhancing performance to meet the objectives. To this effect, performance objective must be monitored in line with the SMART model, motivational methods such profit sharing and bonus et cetera.

In terms of developing solutions to work-based issues in health care setting, it is necessary to define and identify the problem; establish the main causes of the problem; choose the appropriate alternative; implement the alternative; and assess the results. In the long run, communication can only be effective through the use of not only verbal and non-verbal techniques, but also through good listening, assertive, mindful and responsive skills.

References

Borrill. C, West, M & Dawson, J 1998. The Effectiveness of Health Care Teams in the National Health Service http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/jeanc/DOH-final-report.pdf

Cooper, B. 2014, Psychological Theories To Help You Communicate Better With Anyone. Available from:https://blog.bufferapp.com/3-psychological-theories-communication-insigh, [24th May 2016].

Dubinsky, I. Jennings, K &. Brans, B. 2010. 360-Degree Physician Performance Assessments for quality improvement Healthcare Quarterly Vol.13 No.2 2010 71

Hicks, T 2016, Seven Steps for Effective Problem Solving in the Workplace. Available from: http://www.mediate.com/articles/thicks.cfm, [24th May 2016].

McLeod, S. 2014, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Simply Psychology. Available from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html, [24th May 2016].

Mind Tools 2016, Effective Scheduling Planning to Make the Best Use of Your Time. Available from: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_07.html, [24th May 2016].

Messum, D., Wilkes, L. & Jackson, D.E., 2011. Employability skills: Essential requirements in health manager vacancy advertisements. Verified OK.

Mind Tools 2016, Golden Rules of Goal setting. Available from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_90.htm, [24th May 2016].

Robinson, L., Segal, J., & Smith, M 2016, Effective Communication, Help Way Guide. Available from http://www.helpguide.org/articles/relationships/effective-communication.htm., [24th May 2016].

The U.S Department of Education 2016, College- and Career-Ready Standards. Available from <http://www.ed.gov/k-12reforms/standards>, [24th May 2016].

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