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MENTAL HEALTH CARE

Mental health care
Mental health care

Mental health care

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY MENTAL HEALTH CARE

  1. INTRODUCTION

Mental health care practice began several years ago when relatively simple approaches to care were still being utilized. Like any other form of health care, mental health care can be evaluated based on a range of theories and models which have extensively been used to inform mental health nursing practice. This paper discusses the difference between historical and contemporary mental health care as it applies to nursing models and the nursing process.

This paper has described in details, the concepts of “nursing process” and “nursing model” and how they have evolved since conception. Moreover, this paper uses a case study to describe how the nursing process and a nursing model have been applied in nursing care provision for a patient who is suffering from a sexually transmitted infection characterized by depression.

  1. CONTEMPORARY AND HISTORICAL MENTAL HEALTH CARE

2.1 The Nursing Process and how it has Evolved since Conception

The principles of nursing process largely dominate mental health care practice in today’s nursing and health industry. The term “nursing process” is defined as the application of a scientific approach to care provision that involves strict adherence to distinct steps which are aimed at generating positive health outcomes for patients (Perez-Rivas, Martin-Iqlesias, Pacheco del Cerro, Arenas, Lopez and Lagos, 2016, p. 43).

According to Perez-Rivas et. al., (2016, p. 43), for a nursing process to be considered effective, the health care practitioner must complete all the documented steps because information gained from one step results into the success of subsequent steps. Approaching mental health care based on the principles of “nursing process” helps to develop critical thinking skills of nurses, which eventually translates into improved problem-solving and positive health outcomes for mentally-ill patients (Perez-Rivas et. al., 2016, p. 44).

Nursing process and its application in mental health care has greatly evolved from when it was introduced up to date. Traditionally, the nursing process extensively emphasized on health care assessment, implementation of intervention, and planning as the only phases involved in mental health care delivery. In those days, the process did not recognize the significant role played by cognitive processes in influencing decision making during care (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 411).

However, as nurses continued to utilize the historical principles of the nursing process into practice, increasingly advanced nursing processes were integrated and this has greatly improved the overall image of the nursing process. For instance, the advanced nursing process currently integrates diagnostic reasoning that facilitates decision making which was absent in the traditional nursing process.

Through continued nursing research and practice, nursing professionals have contributed greatly to the evolution of the nursing process by identifying the need to incorporate health outcomes identification and planning into the nursing process. To date, health care professionals who handle mental health cases view the nursing process as an advanced form or practice that involves five steps: “assessment, diagnosis, outcome identification and planning, intervention implementation, and evaluation (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 412).

2.2 How the Nursing Process was First Developed and How it is used in Contemporary Nursing

            The nursing process that is used in contemporary nursing differs significantly from the one used in traditional nursing as it applies to mental health care. This is attributed to the changes that have been made on the “nursing process” since it was developed (Perez-Rivas et. al., 2016, p. 44).  Nursing was first viewed as a process rather than a distinct activity in 1955 by Lydia Hall from United Kingdom.

Although many professionals in the nursing field were not sure as to whether Hall’s views were right, a few of them dwelled extensively on the topic and they began to refer to nursing as a process. Examples of authors who supported Hull in describing nursing as a process include Johnson, Orlando, and Wiedenbach and their opinions on the nursing process are available in their publications of 1959, 1961, and 1963 respectively.

By then, only three steps were used to define the nursing process and they include, “assessment, planning, and evaluation (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 411).” These three steps provided the basis of the nursing process that traditional nurses used to deliver mental health care to patients.

            Later on in 1967, an additional step described as implementation of intervention was added to the nursing process by Walsh and Yura. It is not until 1973 when the American Nurses Association (ANA) felt in necessary to incorporate diagnosis into the nursing process. During the final revision and publication of the ANA standards in 1991, another step known as identification of outcome was integrated into the nursing process.

The step was made part of the planning phase and this resulted into the generation of a nursing process that comprised of five steps namely; “assessment, diagnosis, outcome identification and planning, intervention implementation, and evaluation (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 412).” The development of the nursing process has progressed through a number of steps which have been modified across years to generate the process that is currently used in contemporary nursing to provide care for mentally-ill patients.

Based on the nursing process, contemporary nurses frequently assess, diagnose, identity outcomes, implement interventions, and finally evaluate the effectiveness of interventions whenever they are delivering mental health care to patients.

2.3 The Nursing Model and How they Have Evolved Since Conception

            Nursing models play a very important role in nursing practice in the sense that, they largely influence decision making processes by nurses concerning the most appropriate ways through which patients should be handled. A nursing model is defined as a framework of nursing concepts that act as a foundation for nursing care and that describe how given health care practices should be performed (Murphy, Williams and Pridmore, 2010, p. 23).  

Nursing models have been developed to help direct nurses on the best approaches they should take to improve patient outcomes and to explain why certain approaches as relevant. Different nursing models exist and their goal is to assist nurses to achieve various nursing components based on the nature of a mental health issue they are handling at any given time (Springer and Casey-Lockyer, 2016, p. 647).

            Nursing models have significantly evolved since their conception due to constant changes in patients’ needs and due to rapid technological advancements in the contemporary world which tend to change approaches to care. Nursing models were first developed in the United States way back in 1960s (Murphy, Williams and Pridmore, 2010, p. 23). In 1960, the United States was characterized by a number of cultural, technological and social transformations which influenced nursing professionals to make changes that were aimed at improving nursing practice.

For this reason, traditional nursing models were developed based on their effectiveness in meeting basic medical goals. For instance, the “medical model” provided a foundation only for the management of physical health problems. Nurses in the United Kingdom began to apply nursing models into practice in 1970s (Murphy, Williams and Pridmore, 2010, p. 24).

Since then, significant transformations in the world have helped nurses to build a body of knowledge that has been used to develop modern nursing models. Nursing models which are used in contemporary nursing to deliver mental health care have been developed to guide nurses on how they can handle patients with a wide variety of health problems as opposed to traditional models (Springer and Casey-Lockyer, 2016, p. 660).

2.4 Total Patient Care: A Historical Nursing Model

            An example of a historical nursing model that is rarely used by today’s nurses is Total Patient Care which is also known as Private Duty Nurses. Total Patient Care is a nursing model that conceptualizes that, for nurses to deliver quality patient care, they must have a small number of patients that they can effectively handle at any given time. The nurse should then work in collaboration with other registered nurses to ensure that the patients being attended to receive maximum care.  

Total Patient Care model guided traditional nurses to work with small groups of mentally-ill patients that they could effectively handle at any given time. Although Total Patient Care can still be used to guide clinical decisions in today’s health care settings, today’s health care organizations rarely utilize this model to deliver mental health care (Mary and Sandra, 2004, p. 291).

2.5 Watson’s Theory of Caring: A Contemporary Nursing Model

            Through his theory of caring, Jean Watson greatly influences clinical decision making processes by today’s nurses, especially those who deliver care to patients with mental health problems. This contemporary nursing theory conceptualizes that there are four major factors that determine positive patient outcome during care delivery. These factors include the personality of the care giver, the patient’s health status, the environment in which care is delivered, and the nursing process (Ozan, Okumus and Aytekin, 2015, p. 26).

These factors influenced Watson to assume that the most effective form of care is that which is delivered interpersonally. In addition, the nurse should take time to understand specific health problem that a patient is suffering from. Again, it is the responsibility of the nurse to create caring environment for his or her patient. Furthermore, nursing lies at the center of caring and intended health outcomes will only be achieved if the right nursing processes are followed. Watson’s theory of caring is widely used in nursing practice today (Ozan, Okumus and Aytekin, 2015, p. 25).

  1. SERVICE USER’S HISTORY

            A service user whom I have cared for in the past is a female patient aged 16 years and who suspected that she was suffering from a sexually transmitted infection and was therefore in need of medical care. I had to take historical data before I could identify the best component of the nursing process to use in order to confirm presence or absence of a sexually transmitted infection.

My patient was an orphan who stayed with her uncle at the time of visit. At the time of visit, she was feeling depressed and psychologically disturbed because of her health condition. In addition, she was part of a group of commercial sex workers in the city despite her young age, and she uses money earned from the business to earn a living. She had also been in an intimate relation with different partners without protection.

Her uncle used to beat her up every time he was at home and therefore, she feared staying at home. The patient had not taken any medication prior to visiting the health care facility. I applied the nursing process to deliver the most appropriate nursing care for the patient.

When I was handling my patient, I greatly relied on the nursing process that is majorly used in contemporary nursing. By following the five steps of the nursing process, contemporary nurses are able to provide quality care that addresses specific patients’ needs. During assessment phase, the contemporary nurse collects, verifies, organizes, interprets, and documents patients’ health data that will be used to accomplish the subsequent steps.

After collecting relevant data, the contemporary nurse ensues to diagnosis phase where he or she analyzes the collected data to make a clinical judgment which is aimed at identifying a specific health problem that the patient is suffering from (Perez-Rivas et. al., 2016, p. 44).

Once a specific health problem is identified, the contemporary nurse proceeds to the third phase where he or she identifies the most appropriate health outcomes that the patient should be assisted to achieve. It is in this phase where the nurse documents a plan of how the patient can be helped to achieve the proposed outcomes. In the fourth phase, the contemporary nurse implements the right intervention as documented in the plan (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 416).

The nurse then proceeds to the fifth phase where he or she evaluates the effectiveness of the implemented intervention in generating the proposed health outcomes for the patient. In case the proposed health outcomes are not realized following intervention implementation, the nurse is compelled to change the intervention until the intended results are obtained (Perez-Rivas et. al., 2016, p. 44). 

            A component of the nursing process that I used to exercise care for the patient was taken from the Assessment, Diagnosis, Planning, Implementation, and Evaluation (ADPIE) model described above, considering the fact that it is the one that is widely used in contemporary nursing.  I decided to use Diagnosis component of the ADPIE to maximize nursing care for my patient.  

By choosing diagnosis component, I wanted to bring together all the historical data that I had gathered into meaningful information. Specifically, when conducting diagnosis on the patient, I used the data that I had already collected to make clinical judgment about my patient and the family. This enabled me to understand that risk factors that exposed by patient to acquiring sexually transmitted infections.

Furthermore, I was able to predict possible responses that she could receive from family members if she approached them with her health problem. Generally, diagnosis provided me with the basis for selecting the most appropriate nursing intervention that could generate positive health outcomes for my patient.

            The type of diagnosis that I conducted on the patient was possible nursing diagnosis. A possible nursing diagnosis is conducted when a patient’s problem requires additional analysis for the presence or absence of a health problem to be confirmed (Perez-Rivas et. al., 2016, p. 44). In the case that I was handling, it was not yet confirmed that the patient was suffering from sexually transmitted infections. The client was worried that she might have acquired sexually transmitted infections owing to her sexual behaviours in the recent past.      Such thoughts had severe impact on her mental health. Data obtained from this diagnosis helped me to confirm presence of a sexually transmitted infection (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 416).

            Diagnosis was a very important component of ADPIE for my patient because it acted as a link to the other aspects of the nursing process namely; planning, implementation, and evaluation. The diagnosis was the second phase of the nursing process that was performed after collecting data in the assessment phase. Information gathered during diagnosis phase was extremely useful in the subsequent steps because I utilized it to identify the best health outcomes for my patient and to select a nursing intervention that could generate those outcomes for my patients. Diagnosis was very important in the overall nursing process because it helped me to come up with the right interventions that were intended to generate improved health outcomes for the patient (Zamanzadeh et. al., 2015, p. 416).  

When I was providing nursing care to my patient, I paid greatest attention to Watson’s Theory of Caring mode. I utilized the four major factors that determine positive patient outcome during care delivery as described in Watson’s theory of caring. Specifically, I strived to; build strong interpersonal relationship with the client, establish specific health problem the patient was suffering prove, create an environment suitable for nursing care, and to adhere to all steps of the nursing process (Ozan, Okumus and Aytekin, 2015, p. 25).

  1. CONCLUSION

Historical and contemporary mental health care differ significantly due to evolutions in nursing theories and models which have taken place over the years. For instance, while traditional mental health care was delivered using a nursing process that only involved three steps, delivery of contemporary mental care utilizes a nursing process with five steps.

Additionally, while traditional mental health care was based on historical nursing models, today’s mental health care is guided by contemporary nursing models such as Watson’s theory of caring model. The evolutions of the nursing process and the developments of nursing models have brought about significant improvements in health care delivery particularly in mental health care.

From this case study, I have learnt the importance of implementing contemporary nursing processes and nursing models in care delivery. I will utilize this knowledge to improve the quality of mental health care that I will deliver in future. As a student nurse, I will take my time to evaluate and understand changes in nursing models and components of the nursing process as they apply to mental health care.

References

Mary, T. & Sandra, L. 2004, “Traditional models of care delivery: What have we learned?” Journal of Nursing Administration, vol. 34, issue 6, pp 291-297.

Murphy, N., Williams, A. & Pridmore, J. A. 2010, “Nursing models and contemporary nursing 1: The development, uses and limitations,” Nursing Times, vol. 1, issue 106, p. 23-24.

Ozan, Y., Okumus, H., & Aytekin, A. 2015, “Implementation of Watson’s theory of human caring: A case study,” International Journal of Caring Sciences, vol. 8, issue 1, pp. 25-35.

Perez-Rivas, F., Martin-Iqlesias, S., Pacheco del Cerro, K., Arenas, C., Lopez, M. & Lagos, M. B. 2016 “Effectiveness of nursing process use in primary care,” International Journal of Nursing Knowledge, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 43-47.

Springer, J. & Casey-Lockyer, M. 2016, “Evolution of a nursing model for identifying client needs in a disaster shelter: A case study with the American Red Cross,” Nursing Clinics of North America, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 647-662.

Zamanzadeh, V., Valizadeh, L., Tabrizi, F., Behshid, M. & Lotfi, M. 2015 “Challenges associated with the implementation of the nursing process: A systematic review,” Irarian Journal of Midewifery Research, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 411-419.

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The IOM Future of Nursing Report

Future of Nursing
Future of Nursing

Implementation of the IOM Future of Nursing Report

Summary of the key messages of the IOM report

Following a comprehensive assessment of the major challenges facing the nursing profession, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) came up with some recommendations that would help to make the nursing profession relevant and efficient in future. Furthermore, it identified four key messages that acted as the cornerstone for recommendations.

The key messages that were designed by the RWJF and that the recommendations were to focus on include; nurses should fully apply the knowledge and skills acquired through training and education as well as nurses should work in collaboration with other healthcare professionals to bring meaningful changes to the health care system of the United States.

Other recommendations were that nurses should seek to obtain higher levels of education that enhance academic progress by attending new academic institutions; and those nursing institutions can formulate the right policies and plan their workforce effectively through the use of improved technology to collect data (Altman, Butler and Shern, 2015).

Discussion of the work of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Committee Initiative

The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF), in collaboration with the Institute of Medicine, held a meeting in 2008 to examine and take appropriate actions to address some of the pertinent issues facing the nursing profession. This meeting led to the documentation of the IOM report on “Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health” that acts a foundation for today’s nursing practice.

According to the Committee, nurses in the United States are faced with several challenges that prevent them from meeting the health care needs of the nation, and which make them face difficulties as they attempt to fulfill the goals of health care reforms in the country (Altman, Butler and Shern, 2015).

The particular role of the RWJF committee initiative was to produce a report that details key recommendations for improving the nursing profession to make it fit the future needs of the United States citizens. The committee was also charged with the responsibility of highlighting policy changes that should be made by public and private institutions to foster an improvement in the nursing profession.

As a sign of its commitment towards improving the nursing profession in the United States, the RWJF Committee provides recommendations related to eight different areas namely and removal of practice barrier.  Other indicators were; expansion of opportunities for nurses, implementation of residency programs for nurses, increasing the percentage of nurses with baccalaureate degrees, doubling the percentage of nurses with doctorate degrees, promoting lifelong learning for nurses, preparing nurses to become change leaders, and in improving nurses’ abilities to collect relevant health care related data (The Institute of Medicine, 2010).

The importance of the IOM “Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health.”

            The IOM report entitled, “Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health” is extremely crucial to the field of nursing because it contains information that is relevant to improving nursing practice, nursing education, as well as in the development of the nursing workforce. Firstly, the report is important to nursing practice in the sense that, it defines transformed roles of nurses in the whole workforce in a manner that effectively addresses shortage of nurses, the need to integrate cultural and societal issues into practice, as well as the need to provide care using tools that match the ongoing technological trends. 

Additionally, the report examines the innovative solutions that can help to improve care delivery in future (Altman, Butler and Shern, 2015).

Second, the IOM report is critical to nursing education in the sense that, it acts as a guide to the nursing industry by providing information on how the industry can expand nursing faculty in order increase the number of institutions of higher learning. The institute of medicine believes that qualified academic institutions will produce graduate nurses with nursing knowledge and skills that can enable them to meet the health care needs and demands of today’s population (The Institute of Medicine, 2002).

Third, the IOM report is essential to workforce development in the sense that, it details how nursing organizations should attract, train, and retain competent nurses who can provide various levels of care to meet public demand (The Institute of Medicine, 2010).

The intent of the Future of Nursing Campaign for Action

            The Future of Nursing Campaign for Action was devised with an intention to help influence States to make health care reforms that are aimed at improving the nursing profession in the United States (AARP, 2011). For instance, the Campaign for Action is intended to push the Congress to push for expansion of programs that will enable nurses to practice to their full potentials as per the education and training that they possess.

Also, the intent of the Campaign for Action is influence both private and public funders to facilitate accomplishment of projects that will increase both training and learning opportunities for nurses (Campaign for Action, 2013).

            Moreover, the Nursing Campaign for Action intends to put pressure on the federal government, accrediting bodies as well as state boards of nursing to support the implementation of curricula that allow nurses to complete transition-to-practice or residency programs (AARP, 2011).

Again, the campaign intended to encourage health care organizations, academic nurse leaders, as well as accrediting bodies to develop additional institutions of higher learning for nurses to increase the number of nurses who enroll for baccalaureate degrees. In this manner, the institute of medicine believes that the number of nurses with baccalaureate degrees will increase to 80 percent in the next three years (AnneMarie, 2016; & The Institute of Medicine, 2010).

            Additional intentions of the Future of Nursing Campaign for Action include; influencing stakeholders in the nursing education sector to create additional academic institutions that provide doctorate degrees for nurses as this will help to double the number of nurses who graduate with doctoral degrees in the next three years.

Other intentions include; implement nursing education programs that will promote lifelong learning for the nurse, and to take responsibility of training nurses to become change leaders who can successfully implement reforms in the ever-changing health care environment (The Institute of Medicine, 2002).

Most importantly, by creating the campaign for action, the institute of medicine believes that the campaign would influence the National Health Care Workforce Commission to build infrastructure and provide necessary technology that future nurses can use to collect and analyze health care data (Campaign for Action, 2013; & The Institute of Medicine, 2010).

The rationale of state-based action coalitions

            The main role of the state-based action coalitions is to ensure that various states in the United States enact laws that will facilitate the realization of the recommendations documented in the IOM report entitled, “Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health”(AARP, 2011). Additionally, these state-based coalitions work hard to ensure that the IOM recommendations are being implemented at regional and local level.

First, these coalitions work hard to make sure that possible barriers to nursing practice are removed in both educational and healthcare organizations (AARP, 2011). Second, action coalitions based in various states of the United States ensure that relevant programs that expand learning and training opportunities for nurses are implemented. Third, state-based action coalitions ensure that various states have programs in place to support nurse residency (Goode and Williams, 2004).

The fourth role of state-based action coalitions is to make sure that their respective states have enough academic institutions that offer baccalaureate and doctorate degrees for nurses. Additional functions of the state-based action coalitions are to ensure that states of the United States implement; programs that promote lifelong learning for nurses, programs that prepare nurses to become change leaders, and infrastructure that allow nurses to collect and analyze health care related data that can be used to improve nursing practice in future (Campaign for Action, 2013; & The Institute of Medicine, 2010).

Action Coalition Initiatives

An example of a state-based action coalition is the Alaska Action Coalition. This coalition comprises of individuals and organizations with a common goal of transforming the health care system of Alaska State. In Alaska, quite some nurse champion organizations work together in the Alaska Action Coalition to place the state forward as one of those regions that are committed to implementing the Future of Nursing recommendations (Alaska Action Coalition).

One of the initiatives spearheaded by Alaska Action Coalition is supporting the full realignment of the Advanced Practice Registered Nurse courses with recommendation documented by the Institute of Medicine. This initiative significantly contributed to the advancement of the nursing profession in the sense that it promotes the production of nurse graduates who are competent enough to deliver care that meets the need of the current population.

The other initiative that is being spearheaded by Alaska Action Coalition is the implementation of programs that educate nurses to lead change in their organizations. This initiative greatly contributes to the advancement of the nursing profession in the sense that it contributed to the preparation of nurses who can effectively lead change (Campaign for Action, 2013).

 The main barrier to advancement that is commonly faced by action coalitions in Alaska is limited finances to facilitate all the procedures required to ensure full compliance with existing regulations. Nursing advocates in Alaska can overcome this barrier by asking the state to review and try to reduce the financial expenses incurred by coalitions that are committed to implementing the Future of Nursing recommendations (Alaska Action Coalition).

References

AARP. (2011). Future of Nursing: Campaign for Action. Washington, DC: AARP Public Policy Institute

Alaska Action Coalition. Retrieved from https;//campaignforction.org/state/Alaska/

Altman, S., Butler, A. & Shern, L. (2015). Assessing progress on the Institute of Medicine report “The future of nursing.” Washington, DC: The National Academies for Sciences.

AnneMarie, P. (2016). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health…how are we doing? Nursing Critical Care, 11(3):4.

Campaign for Action. (2013). The future of nursing IOM report. Retrieved from https://www,campaignforaction.org

Goode, C. J. & Williams, C. A. (2004). Post-baccalaureate nurse residency program. Journal of Nursing Administration, 34(2): 71-77.

The Institute of Medicine. (2002). The future of the public’s health in the 21st century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press

The Institute of Medicine. (2010). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

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Prison and Jail System

Prison and Jail System
Prison and Jail System

Criminal Justice: Prison and Jail System

Question 1

Prison litigation refers to cases filed by inmates in the public courts of law. The number of prison litigation in the 1980’s skyrocketed to 23,230 filed in the US district courts under the Title 42 within the Federal Statute.  The number increased by 49% in the 1996 an aspect that necessitated the Congress to pass the Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) to reduce the number of cases (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2014). The PLRA has two pillars, which are the prospective relief provision and the prisoner litigation provisions.

The two pillars have three major facets that hold the prison litigation in place. The prisoners need to go through all the administrative channels before going to the federal courts. Secondly, prisoners filing forma pauperis are required to pay the courts and filing cost via their funds that are present in the correctional trust fund. Lastly, the prisoners are not permitted to file forma pauperis if they have filed cases that have were terminated by the courts due to malevolence (Campbell, 2009).

The PLRA amendments served to benefit one party that is the courts by reducing the number of cases in the courts but were disadvantageous to the prisoners. The amendment makes it difficult for the prisoners to be guaranteed fair hearing in the federal and state courts. The amendment provides a long chain for the prisoners to follow before they file their cases in the court termed as exhaustion requirement.

According to Margo Schlanger who has done research on the impact of PLRA, she discovered that most of the cases filed within the system are discarded for frivolous issues. Some of them include missing a deadline, filing the documents with red ink or attaching medical records to support their claims in their submissions. The aspect makes it harder for the prisoners to not only file their cases but also win them (Sullivan, 2013). The legal system needs to make sure that the rights of all citizens by the fact that they are human beings are upheld, but inmates are shunned under the pretext of the PLRA.

The second effect is that it does limit the number of experienced lawyers willing to represent the prisoner. The reason for this is that the PLRA does limit the contingent rates that the lawyers can recover to 150% of the judgment and the hourly fees to 150% of the appointed counsel rates by the courts. This aspect coupled with the fact that the chances of winning are minimal deters them from taking the cases hence placing the inmates at a disadvantageous point.

 Based on Booker (2016), only 5% of the cases involving inmates in 2012 was represented by lawyers when compared to 65% of the cases involving non-incarcerated individuals. The disparity reduces the chances of the inmates to get a fair trial and have an equal chance of winning the cases filed against the system.

Thirdly, the policy restricts the inmates from recovering from mental or emotional injury without proving a physical injury took place. In the prison case scenario, inmates are at times coerced into sex, discriminated against regarding religion, ethnicity among other violations within the constitution that do not involve physical injury. The prison and the legal system have a duty of ensuring such aspects do not occur, and in the case, they do the perpetrators face punishment. Based on this aspect the inmates end up adopting violence as a coping mechanism in the harsh environment while some commit suicide as a way of escaping their torture (Bark, 2014)

Prisons are areas where the criminals are expected to reform, but with the PLRA the reform involves infringing immensely on their rights as human beings. The courts have minimal authority when it comes to altering the prison policies to protect the inmates. The incapacitation of the courts gives more power to the administrators to set up more hurdles when the inmates are filing their cases (Schlanger and Shay, 2008). The increase in procedures and policies set do frustrate the inmates as it limits the chances of addressing their grievances.

Question 2

According to Schlanger and Shay (2008) jails play an integral role in the criminal justice system as they hold inmates as they await their trial, sentencing or charges. The jails serve to separate the criminals from the innocent people in the society. The aim of the separation is to keep the society safe from the criminal who wants to create havoc. Jails are typically run by the local government while others by cities or managed by people privately through contracts with the local government

The jail system holds criminals who have done petty offenses or those serving a sentence of less than one year. The inmate, in this case, is run through a system that will help them change their perspective on life, in other words, make them fit in the society. Jail system has a rehabilitation program that does give the inmates skills that will enable them to get employment after their sentence (Terry, 2009).

Furthermore, the jails decongest the state prisons hence ensuring manageable numbers. The USA as an estimate of 3,300 jails that hold 1/3 of 2 million inmates, the number has increased tremendously over the years due to the lifestyle changes in the society. It is true that there is a negative correlation between the rate of criminal increase and the jails in the country resulting in overcrowding in the system (Sullivan, 2013).

I believe the jail system is necessary as it does deter people from engaging in crime. The harsh conditions in the present jail system make many people rethink their decision to commit a crime. Moreover, the jail system does punish the criminals by taking away some privileges they enjoyed in the free world and aid them in reforming. Retribution is part and parcel of the jail system as it saves to bring a reformed individual to the society.

Question 3

 Three punishment and incarceration theories form the basis of treatment programs they include utilitarian, retributive and denunciation. The utilitarian theory focuses on punishing the criminals to serve as a lesson to them and other members of the society. Under the utilitarian theory, offenders go to jail or prison to deter them from engaging in the same crime for a period (Mallik, 2014). When they are under the system, the system does introduce harsh living conditions that will make them regret their mistake.

The regret is what leads to the next step, which is rehabilitation. Rehabilitation deals with treating mental illness, violent behavior, and drug dependency. It also does incorporate educational skills that give the inmates skills and knowledge that will enable them to get jobs when they integrate into the society (Schlanger and Shay, 2008).

The second treatment program focuses on the retributive theory where the criminal gets punished for their offense (Mallik, 2014). In the USA, some states still have the capital punishment for offenders. The capital punishment serves to punish the offenders for the crime they committed and does give justice to the victims. The severity of the issue does make many potential offenders abstain from engaging in any criminal activity that will cost them their lives (Gottschalk, 2006).

The last one is the denunciation whereby the society subjects an individual to societal condemnation (Mallik, 2014). An example is when someone gives out information to a competitor in the business world. The publication of their name in the newspapers and the media serves to condemn them for their actions, and the business industry will shun their serves.

Treatment programs serve as a means of reforming the criminals into productive citizens. The programs give the criminals a second chance to achieve their potentials which do result in the growth of the nation. The treatment programs give the society an opportunity to deter potential criminals from engaging in crime. The major disadvantage is that managing the programs is costly and does add an immense burden to the state and federal system (Lowenkamp, Latessa and Smith, 2006).

Based on my analysis, I can conclude that they are necessary for ensuring that the victims get justice and the offender gets punished for their offense. The treatment programs provide the society with an opportunity to move forward from a negative event in their lives.

Question 4

Correctional system in the USA has undergone many amendments with the aim of formulating means to reduce the over congestion in the prisons and jail system. The first correctional policy is the reduction in the harsh sentences within the criminal judicial system. Many states in the USA have eradicated capital punishment in preference for the rehabilitation sentences (Lowenkamp et al., 2006).The adoption of the utilitarian approach with the aim of appearing democratic has increased the number of offenders hence increasing the number of inmates in the system.

Secondly, the AB 109 also known as the realignment bill serves the purpose of diverting the risk of punishing low-risk offender to the counties from the state. It also altered the three strikes law……” where the defendant convicted of any new felony, having suffered one prior conviction of a serious felony to be sentenced to state prison for twice the term otherwise provided for the crime…,’’ (California’s Three Strikes Sentencing Law – criminal_justice, 2017).

The AB 109 does increase the chances of criminals viewing the system as being lenient hence increasing their chances to engage in serve crimes.  An example of the negative impact of this is the shooting of Whittier police officer Keith Boyer by an offender who was on a locally supervised probation instead of jail (Realignment (AB 109) in California, 2017).

The third correctional policy is the hands-off doctrine that eliminated the supreme court’s involvement in prison operations. The policy has resulted in the correctional facilities being under the direct control of the administrators. In the case, an inmate feels offended by the jail system and want their grievances addressed the long channels tend to limit them from getting justice (Gendreau, Goggin, and Smith, 2000). The hands-off policy is closely tied to the denunciation theory where the society does shun the inmates, in this case, the administrators. The aspect as resulted in the increase in violence in various jails and prisons around the country.

As discussed in this paper there is a conflict of goals that tend to affect the future corrections system. Different states apply different correctional policies when it comes to dealing with offenders. The drive is often political, civil or economic pressures faced by the legislature. The conflict in goals leads to lenient policies that favor one party while ignoring the other party directly or indirectly involved in a crime.

The second challenge is getting adequate funding. The correctional facilities in the current are underfunded by the federal and the state government. In 2016, the total budget allocated to the correctional facility was $71 billion which is not proportional to the high number of inmates in these facilities.

Thirdly, the correctional facilities have understaffed an aspect that makes it difficult to enroll the correctional programs fully. The aspect results in the offenders viewing jail term as a break from their real lives instead of a period to reform. The perception has led to the increase in the number of second-time offenders across the country (Gottschalk, 2006).

Lastly, there is a lack of proper coordination between the different agencies involved in the criminal justice system when it comes to correctional activities. The lack of a seamless flow of information on how to reform the inmates and decongest the system has rendered the correctional system ineffective (Gendreau et al., 2000).

In conclusion, the future seems bleak in the correctional system if the legislature and the society do not take a step to work together. The joint effort will enable the future generations to grow up with morals and the institution of progressive correctional policies that will reduce the rate of crime in the country.

REFERENCES

Bark, N. (2014). Prisoner mental health in the USA. Int Psychiatry, 11, 53-5.

Booker, M. (2017). 20 years is enough: Time to repeal the Prison Litigation Reform Act | Prison Policy Initiative. Prisonpolicy.org. Retrieved 1 July 2017, from https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2016/05/05/20years_plra/

Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Dep’t of Justice, (2014). Survey of State Criminal History Information Systems.

California’s Three Strikes Sentencing Law – criminal_justice. (2017). Courts.ca.gov. Retrieved 2 July 2017, from http://www.courts.ca.gov/20142.htm

Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., & Smith, P. (2000). Generating rational correctional policies: An introduction to advances in cumulating knowledge. Corrections Management Quarterly, 4, 52-60.

Gottschalk, M. (2006). The prison and the gallows: The politics of mass incarceration in America. Cambridge University Press.

Lowenkamp, C. T., Latessa, E. J., & Smith, P. (2006). Does correctional program quality really matter? The impact of adhering to the principles of effective intervention. Criminology & Public Policy, 5(3), 575-594.

Mallik, A. (2014). Theories of Punishment in the Ethics of Philosophy. Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Science & English Language.

Realignment (AB 109) in California. (2017). Shouselaw.com. Retrieved 2 July 2017, from http://www.shouselaw.com/realignment.html

Schlanger, M., & Shay, G. (2008). Preserving the rule of law in America’s jails and prisons: The case for amending the Prison Litigation Reform Act.

Sullivan, K. T. (2013). To free or not to free: Rethinking release orders under the prison litigation reform act after Brown v. Plata. BCJL & Soc. Just., 33, 419.

Terry, C. (2009). Prison Litigation and What It Means To You as a Corrections Professional. Corrections.com. Retrieved 1 July 2017, from http://www.corrections.com/news/article/22872-prison-litigation-and-what-it-means-to-you-as-a-corrections-professional

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Punishment in the Criminal Justice System

Punishment in the Criminal Justice System
Punishment in the Criminal Justice System

Punishment in the Criminal Justice System

All over the world, the criminal justice system of any state serves two major objectives; enforcement of the law of the land, and correction of offenders through various reform institutions. In this regard, criminal justice can be construed to mean a system governed by standard practices that aim to uphold social control, detecting and preventing crime, and most importantly sanctioning offenders through the use of various forms of punishments.

Significantly, criminal punishment is applied as a way to encourage proper conduct between individuals in the society and at the same time make one take responsibility for a wrongful act committed against another. In this respect, retaliatory acts are avoided because victims of crime will be satisfied that the wrongdoer has faced equal punishment in comparison with the act done. Notably, Lollar (2014) asserts that punishments can also be used as a compensatory tool towards victims of crime.

Retributive punishment

Foremost, this type of punishment is founded on the belief that the best way to respond to a wrongful act is by using a proportionate punishment. According to Flanders (2014) retributivists are of the opinion that when an offender commits an illegal act, the criminal justice system should make such a person suffer an equal and proportionate punishment.

Amusingly, retributivists attach their justification for proportionate punishment from ancient religious laws such as the ones contained in the Holy Bible, for instance, Exodus 21:23 avers that if any person commits harm, then the resulting punishment should be equal, hence the catchphrase “a life for a life, an eye for an eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.” Notably, similar sentiments are proclaimed in Biblical verses such as 5:38 and Deuteronomy 19:21.

Retributivists argue that as long as the damage has been done, there is nothing that can be done to reverse such damage hence the only way to administer justice is by giving equal punishment (Flanders, 2014). Seemingly, such reasoning can be said to be backward looking such that it does not take into consideration that at times crime may be committed in a unpremeditated way such that punishing an offender for the same would be harsh or excessive.

Another going concern for this form of punishment is that it may encourage revenge and promote retaliation in the society. Also, in some instances, it may be hard to draw the line between punishment that is sufficient and from the punishment that is excessive.

An example of a retributive form of punishment is the death penalty which according to Luliano (2015) is no punishment at all because it only seeks to insert pain as a measure of administering justice but does not address the root causes of crime or even ways of helping individuals refrain from such crime.

Utilitarian Punishment

First, from a wider scope, the utilitarian theory developed by Jeremy Bentham emphasizes that any action within the society should be directed towards achieving maximum satisfaction and catering for the well being of the majority members of the society. The utilitarian form of punishment, threads on the same footing by asserting that the laws that guide the conduct of the people in the society, should be used to maximize the happiness of the society (FERRARO, 2013).

Hence, crime and punishment should be kept to a minimum because they are inconsistent with happiness which the utilitarian theory of punishment asserts. Importantly, proponents of this theory of punishment recognize that having a crime free society may be a fallacy as such recommend that the form of punishment handed down to a wrongdoer should be directed to producing “good” from the person. In this respect, the punishment should not be unlimited.

Unlike the retributive form of punishment, which is said to be backward looking, the utilitarian form of punishment is largely presumed to be proactive on crime. For instance, the laws that direct how punishment should be handed down on crime should be designed to deter future crimes of the same nature.

Accordingly, rehabilitation of criminal offenders can be said to be one of the methods that the utilitarian form of punishment emphasizes as a way of administering justice.  Rehabilitation mainly aims at reforming an offender rather than punish so that they may be integrated back into the society. Equally, jailing as a form of incapacitation of an offender also falls under the utilitarian form of punishment because, by removal of the offender’s ability to commit offenses from the society, future crimes of the same nature may be prevented.

Preferred rationale/form of punishment

First, it is important to appreciate the fact that in certain instances, the commission of a criminal act may not be planned such that one will be deemed unswervingly guilty of the act. Offenses such as murder may happen due to provocation such that one may end up taking another one’s life in the heat of passion. Similarly, minors and persons of unsound mind are not spared either when it comes to the commission of a crime. However, such a category of persons may be deemed to a special group because of the underlying issues such as the lack of understanding of the consequence that a particular act may lead to.

From the examples mentioned above, a retributive form of punishment will certainly administer justice in the wrong way because of its backward-looking nature of offering proportionate punishment. Without taking into consideration factors that may have led to a crime, any form of punishment handed down to an individual may be excessive or uncalled for.

By the same token, criminals are presumed to be ordinary persons such that one factor changed that status, for instance, one may seek to steal due to poverty. Alternatively, another person may engage in crime as an act of revenge for a wrongful act done on them. Under such circumstances, the form of punishment handed down should be directed towards enabling such a person reform and be integrated back into the society so as to continue developing.

Notably, even under religious laws, the principle of forgiveness is widely discussed. In this respect, retributive punishment does not give individuals any opportunity to reform or even afford the wrong persons with the chance to deliberate on pardoning the person after serving their sentence as an act of compassion.

Hence, I will argue that the utilitarian form of punishment stands out as the best-placed method for punishing offenders because it not only takes into considerations of the underlying factors that may have led to a crime but it also focuses on handing down the punishment that in the long run will stem out goodness from a person. Goralski (2015) is of the same views by asserting that models of punishment that presume criminals to be bad people who deserve harsh punishments should be relatively be avoided because this leads to vengeance rather than reform.

Philosophy of Imprisonment

Borrowing meaning from the Law Dictionary (2016), imprisonment means restraining or putting an individual in confinement such that his liberty is subjugated. In this respect, imprisonment can be said to be a tool of crime deterrence going by the fact that is limits one’s movement and activities.

Arguably, the rationale for imprisonment as a form of punishment can be said to have stemmed from the belief that by subjecting a person to a place whereby their rights and freedoms were limited to a minimal level, then people would be careful not to commit crime because of the hardships that one would experience while in prison.

However, one can say that imprisonment only acts as a form of banishment of an individual. This is to say, prisons only act as means of putting an individual away from his ordinary life such that he is disassociated with the society. Hence, for imprisonment to reform an individual, an extra effort must be provided a failure to which the individual will only lack his privileges which may not be enough to deter future crimes.

Stuart Greenstreet (2017) argues that imprisonment does not serve its purpose of preventing crime. In his discourse, “Prison Doesn’t work” he asserts that the reason why prisoners even after being released are likely to commit crime is based on the fact that by putting together equal minded people that share similar criminal mindsets, the likelihood of having a worse crime is high because of the perception that jail is used as a way of punishing them.

Also, innocent persons may be subjected to imprisonment such that if they are not helped in having a changed mentality of a criminal justice system, then the likelihood of prisons remodeling such a person by just having them locked up can be equaled to a time bomb.

From a personal point of view, imprisonment only serves to confine people to a place whereby they can no longer commit the crime, but it is not effective in deterring the occurrence of future crimes. Imprisonment should be supported with other special programs that help prisoners have a different perception of prisons and importantly assist them on being integrated back to the society.

Restorative Justice

Restorative Justice largely emphasizes on the usage of alternative measures to solve crimes and social disorders. According to Walgrave (2013) restorative justice embraces the ideology that wrongdoers should be empowered to rehabilitate, reform and be reconciled back to the community. Seemingly, any form of crime causes harmto another as such focusing on repairing the harm in perceived to be vital in assisting the warring parties. United Nation’s office on drug and crime asserts that restorative justice seeks to put things right between conflicting parties while at the same time preventing occurrences of similar misconducts through the use of corrective strategies and programs.

Nevertheless, this concept has been purported as being too ambitious in a bid to restore ties between the victims of crime and the offenders, especially when compared with traditional models which emphasizes on the punishment of offenders for any crimes committed. However, restorative justice must be applauded for promoting values such as forgiveness, dialogue, accountability and fraternity (Arlene Gadreault, 2015). Evidently, the main aim of restorative justice is to give both the offenders and victims of crime a bigger role to play within the criminal justice system so as to yield positive outcomes and at the same time offer the necessary assistance to both parties.

Notably, restorative justice can be regarded as an alternative dispute resolution mechanism, which uses less punitive channels often in the form of diversion programs under various state agencies that are meant to aid the involved parties to resolve the previous conflict. Accordingly, restorative justice affords offenders with the opportunity to take responsibility for the harm or injuries caused to victims and consequently, make adequate compensation.   

Bentham project

Foremost, Bentham being a prominent law scholar that developed various law theories such as the utilitarian school of thought theory, it is then important to have a deep understanding of the message that he intended to put across through the use of his works. Thus, the Bentham project can be said to largely focus on Bentham’s writings and how they can be made relevant to the modern world’s activities.

The Bentham Project also can be said to focus on how to formulate basic codes of conduct within the society. For instance, the utilitarian theory of punishment can be said to follow the guidelines of Bentham’s utilitarian theory.

Lastly, this project is of great significance especially for learners to get to know the foundation and originality of various concepts that are applicable in today’s world. Having a deep understanding of the origin of things or events is important in assisting one to comprehend their significance in the society.

References

Arlene Gadreault (2015, January 7th). The Limits of Restorative Justice, School of Criminology,

Universite de Montreal, [online]. Retrieved from http://www.victimsweek.gc.ca/symp-colloque/past-passe/2009/presentation/arlg_1.html

FERRARO, F. (2013). Adjudication and expectations: Bentham on the role of the judges. Utilitas, 25(2), 140-160.

Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0953820812000349

Flanders, C. (2014). Can retributivism be saved? Brigham Young University Law Review,

2014(2), 309-362. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1567682599?accountid=45049

GORALSKI, M. W. (2015). LET THE JUDGE SPEAK: RECONSIDERING THE ROLE OF REHABILITATION IN FEDERAL SENTENCING. St. Louis Law Review, 89(4), 1283-1310. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1860286122?accountid=45049

Lollar, C. E. (2014). What is criminal restitution? Iowa Law Review, 100(1), 93-154. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1633992433?acccountid=45049

Luliano, J. (2015). WHY CAPITAL PUNISHMENT IS NO PUNISHMENT AT ALL. American University Review, 64(60, 1377-1441. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1719903823?accountid=45049

The Law Dictionary (2016). What is imprisonment? [Online] Retrieved from https://thelawdictionary.org/imprisonment/

UNITED NATIONS Office on Drugs and Crime (2016), ‘Handbook on Restorative Justice

Programmes’, Vienna. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org>06-56290_Ebook

Walgrave, L. (2013). Perceptions of justice and fairness in criminal proceedings and restorative

encounters: Extending theories of procedural justice. Tijdschrift Voor Criminology, 55(2), 229-233. Retrieved fromhttps://search.proquest.com/1426081042?accountid=45049

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Principles Of Effective Christian Counseling

Christian Counseling
Christian Counseling

1.0 Introduction

1.1 What is Considered Christian Counseling? 

Does the number of emotionally hurting persons in the world keep on increasing daily? Different people including churches are having difficulty adapting to the fact that people need counseling to the point that some churches are not seeing the need to conduct counseling within the church. Christian counseling is different from secular counseling, in the sense that most Christian counselors use the biblical perspective to guide people since the Bible is viewed as the basis of truth[1].  Christian or biblical counselors usually seek to know the areas that an individual has been disobedient to Christian principles and scripture to try to assist the person to get back to submit to God. The counselors can direct back the people by using their standards to measure their goals and the lifestyles of those being advised. Research shows that Christian counselors understand the Bible concepts especially practical wisdom on marriage, human suffering and marriage hence use them to guide people on what they should do and to make the accountable[2].

2.0 Origins of Christian Counseling

Christian Counseling began slightly in 1968 although the counseling had not been officially documented since it existed from the 1st century and in the New Testament.  In the early years of 1900’s Christians believed and agreed that the Bible was the cornerstone to restore human lives. Jay E. Adams is believed to be the founder of biblical counseling movement. Psychologist O. Hobart Mowrer (1907-1982) is however considered as the founding father of counseling movement. This is however confusing since most of Mowrer contributions was towards the field of modern psychology[3]. Mowrer had expertise in learning theory and became the first discoverer of anxiety and fear. Mowrer believed that illness related to the mind was based on genetic or biological aspects of individuals. He further believed that mental illness was a result of confessed sins that haunted an own guilt.

According to him, there was no satisfaction in the manner in which Christians or churches addressed sins in practice and theology especially through the justification of doctrine[4]. He founded therapy groups that he structured around concepts of confession, integrity, and confrontation and started teaching theories of mental health and sin to other people including seminary students. Jay E. Adams is one of the students agreed with the modern psychiatry in the sense that churches were overlooking the fact that sin could be a possible aspect in causing emotional distress. Mowrer psychiatry gave the church the authority and right to counsel those hurting, however, it was viewed by Adam as a fight against the church since it was replacing Christian faith with humanistic views and self-centered thinking[5].

David Powlison, who was Adams student, further pursued the previous ideas in his dissertation book. According to him, Adams dispute with the understanding of individual problems was outlined around knowledge system framed in explicitly theological terms. His view is that medical model defined women and men as not being responsible to God and themselves contrary to earlier set views. David also argues that Adam did not see the cure of souls being possible by using peace of mind or behaviors that are socially accepted that was stated as being enough[6].

3.0 Christian Counseling

The Christian counseling community has been engaging in discussions on what Christian counseling should be and the extent to which the Bible should be based on. Christian counseling has few basic approaches that are limited hence making it ineffective when applied to some situations. Christian counseling has brought some confusions if indeed it’s true to its objective keeping in mind that Christians may call themselves counselors or some counselors may just call themselves Christians for the sake of attracting clients. Few concepts have been used to shade some light to customers who are seeking the services of Christian counselors. This is because some individuals may require spiritual knowledge to handle their dilemmas rather than using secular perspective to advise them. Different Christians especially those who hold strong denominational, evangelical or fundamentalist beliefs would prefer counseling services from a Christian counselor[7].

This, therefore, has become a challenge because some become frustrated due to the disparity that exists today in Christian counseling. The disparities have resulted due to the existence of different types of Christian counselors including. Examples include but are not limited to: Pastors that give their advice due to their seminary education or experience; Christians with deliverance ministries; Christians therapists with family and marriage experience; Christians applying scripture concepts but do not have counseling training or skills; Christian professional counselors, social workers; Clinical Psychologists who combine secular counseling knowledge with Christian principles and secular counselors posing as Christians[8]. The different types of counselors end up frustrating those seeking to be advised by right or believing counselors. It is also difficult to monitor if those claiming to be Christian counselors are using Bible concepts when advising their clients.

Individuals seeking professional services of a counselor are usually referred by their pastors to individuals known to the pastor or have a counseling center that has the same doctrine with the pastor. Despite the try to only refer church members to Christian counselor’s challenges do occur since some counselors are already introduced to secular training or education world especially those working outside the church stings. Churches also recruit counselors due to their secular association making them continue using secular techniques instead of shifting to Christian techniques while advising their Christian clients. The approach is therefore deemed to backfire in the end because failure to use biblical perspectives will make some clients to be frustrated especially when they realize that their Christian counselors do not seem to bother holding them responsible for going against their Christian values. Most Christians seeking professional counseling would love to be corrected by being given practical examples from the Bible, failure to which they will start doubting the whole process.

4.0 The Need to Rely Solely On Scripture for Answers

Despite the discussions, if there is need to combine research and practical experience, Spiritual Revelation and Biblical knowledge when counseling questions still arise as to what extent or portion should Christian counseling depend on the different kind of knowledge. As much as Christian counseling should solely rely on Biblical perspectives, it also becomes necessary to incorporate other types of counseling to get the desired results. The counseling process should rely first on the Bible followed by spiritual revelation, secular research, and theories since each perspective are important in bringing psychological healing to the customer[9].

Counseling based on the biblical process of Salvation by Faith is the most complete and reliable and should be used fundamentally in everything done in the church. It is prudent to argue that if the process of salvation by faith is Gods way of making people whole again, then it should be used primarily in the counseling process. This, therefore, means that if biblical perspective can be used to solve psychological problems in the church, it needs to be strengthening to make it effective when used. It is also worth noting that if the Christian counseling process were based solely on biblical answers it would be readily accepted in churches and many who are not subscribed to the counseling process will be willing to incorporate the Christian counseling in most programs in the church.

                                    

5.0 Principles of Effective Biblical Counseling

The active principle of biblical counseling is developed to guide counselors on how to conduct themselves during counseling process and to handle their clients well. Different principles have been outlined:

5.1 People Need Help

The first principle is to understand that people need help. Various reasons have been described as the causes making people seek help including anxiety, stress, bitterness, and resentments, especially in marriage, churches, and families. Lack of people being taught character values and how to manage life challenges to be able to conveniently confront them also contribute the number of those seeking help. The difficulties of people’s lives have made the number of those seeking Christian counseling to increase. Understanding that people need help will help the counselor focus on the problem rather than judging the individual for seeking help[10].

5.2 Counselors Should Be Competent

The next effective principle is that counselors should be competent since the process of helping people is urgent but not a natural process. This, therefore, calls for competency on the counselor side for them to be careful so as to identify the best counseling approach to apply to their different clients. It is also important to understand that Christian counseling is not for every person especially to those who are resisting change or growth in their lives. It also certainly not applies to counselors whose motive of helping others are not genuine and are not concerned with the welfare of those being counseled. Christian counseling, therefore, is for those who have the potential of becoming skillful sensitive and knowledgeable and motivated to handle clients[11].

5.3 Counselors Need To Have a Strong Value System

The next principle is that counselors need to have a strong value system since the process of helping people can be a damaging process at times if the counselor has flaws. If the client comes to realize that the counselor is not perfect or doesn’t have a moral value it makes them frustrated and to begin doubting the process. This, therefore, calls for identification of values that are used to measure parameters of being right or wrong or to measure mediocrity and excellence. Therefore the counselor’s values can be used to measure the number of individuals who are likely to cope in future based on the help received. Having a counselor with high values plays a role in determining if the clients will be able to handle difficulties in future or will still be broken by them[12].

5.4 Counselors Not To Be Too Attached To the Clients

Christian counseling principle also calls for counselors not to be too attached to the clients or to make them dependent on the counseling process. Counselors should, therefore, maximize on making the individual use their human potential to effectively provide a lasting change to the individual. The clients should also be willing to receive help since it’s the fundamental aspect required to make the counseling process a success. Those who are defensive or resistant and not willing to receive help will make less commitment to change their ways to improve the way they live. An individual who has been manipulated, or threatened may view the counselor as being part of the plan hence may fail to open up. The counselor can only patiently wait for the person to realize despite being adamant seeking and wanting help will do a greater good in their lives[13].

5.5 Counseling Process Should Be Handled By Professionals

The counseling process should be handled by professionals who trained on how to handle their clients. This because those seeking help would love to be talking to experts who can easily identify their problems and advise them accordingly. Both the counselor and the client should trust in God keeping in minds that despite the counseling God should be left in control to guide the client further. Trusting in God form the basis of Christian counseling since clients would love to be advised based on Bible or Scripture perspective. It is also important that offering help without trusting in God equalize to secular counseling, which the client may be avoided since they directly sought Christian counseling[14].

5.6 Counselors Should Be Effective Communicators

Effective counselors should be good communicators since most counseling sessions require the counselor to carefully choose their words to avoid communicating in a manner that further hurts the client. The chosen words should inspire the client and not condemn them. The counseling duration should be limited since the counselor should watch the calendar to make the client grow and become self- reliant. The counseling process should be limited to only responding to the need of the client to prevent developing the unhealthy relationship where the client becomes dependent on the counselor regarding advice[15].

5.7 Christian Counselors Should Maintain Confidentiality

Christian counselors should maintain confidentiality by not sharing with a third party problem faced by their clients. This helps in maintaining the trust since the person shared in confidence and to avoid making them vulnerable. The counselor should also be able to exhibit the character that is being sold to the client. That is the counselor should be convincing and inspiring to the client to make them want to adopt the changes being said to them since it works to bring positive change.

5.8 Counselors Should Also Remember To Take Care of Themselves

Despite helping other people counselors should also remember to take care of themselves. This because one can be overwhelmed with their jobs to the extent that they forget their needs and start looking that they need help themselves. The counselor also need be a good listener since helping people requires one to a good listener to be in a position to evaluate and digest what is being communicated to give adequate counsel. This is because the person receiving help find it comforting when they are understood correctly and given important advice to help them confront their situation[16].

6.0 Conclusion

The number of people who are hurting emotionally keeps on increasing by the day. What is considered to be Christian counseling? Christian counseling uses biblical perspective when counseling believers. Christian counseling, therefore, is becoming necessary in churches to help Christians having difficulties in their lives. According to research Christian counseling is the best since most advice being given to clients has biblical perspectives that clients are seeking to get given the fact that they help comfort disturbed souls. Christian counselors should follow guiding principles to offer the best services to their clients. Being good communicators and listeners are paramount to make the counseling process a success.

7.1 Bibliography

David, G. Benner. Strategic pastoral counseling. A short-term structured model. Second edition. 2012. pg. 1-41.

Everett, L. Worthington Jr., Eric, L. Johnson, Joshua, N. Hook and Jamie, D. Aten. Evidence-based practices for Christian counseling and psychotherapy.2017. 1-141.

Randolph K. Sanders (ed). Christian Counseling Ethics A Handbook for Psychologists Therapists and Pastors. Second Edition. 2017. 7-120.

Richard E. Butman. Qualifications of the Christian Mental Health Professional. 2012. Pg. 1-28.

Sanders, Randolph K., ed. Embracing our Ethical Mandate. Christian Counseling Ethics. Westmont: InterVarsity Press. Accessed June 11, 2017. ProQuest Ebook Central 2012. pg. 8-26.

Siang-Yang Tan. Counseling and Psychotherapy. A Christian perspective. 2017. pg. 1-178.

Tim, Clinton and Gary, Sibcy. Christian Counseling, Interpersonal Neurobiology, and the Future. Journal of Psychology & Theology. 2012. Vol.40. No. 2, 141-145.

[1] Tim, Clinton, and Gary, Sibcy, Christian Counseling, Interpersonal Neurobiology, and the Future, Journal of Psychology &Theology. 2012, Vol.40, No. 2, 141-143.

[2] Ibid, pg, 143-145.

[3] Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling and Psychotherapy, A Christian Perspective, 2017, pg. 21-37.

[4] Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling, and Psychotherapy, A Christian perspective. 2017, pg, 51-68.

[5] Ibid, pg. 80-95.

[6] David, G. Benner, Strategic pastoral counseling. A short-term structured model. Second edition, 2012, pg. 1-41.

[7] Sanders, Randolph K., ed, Embracing our Ethical Mandate. Christian Counseling Ethics. Westmont, InterVarsity Press. Accessed June 11, 2017. ProQuest EBook Central. 2012, pg. 8-16.

[8] Ibid, 16-24.

[9] Sanders, Randolph K., ed, Embracing our Ethical Mandate. Christian Counseling Ethics. Westmont, InterVarsity Press. Accessed June 11, 2017. ProQuest Ebook Central. 2012, Pg, 20-26.

[10] Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling and Psychotherapy. A Christian perspective. 2017, pg, 158-178.

[11] Richard E, Butman, Qualifications of the Christian Mental Health Professional. 2012, Pg. 1-28.

[12] Randolph K. Sanders (ed), Christian Counseling Ethics A Handbook for Psychologists, Therapists, and Pastors. Second Edition. 2017, 7-120.

[13] Everett, L, Worthington Jr, Eric, L. Johnson, Joshua, N. Hook and Jamie, D. Aten, Evidence-based practices for christian counseling and psychotherapy, 2017, 21-41.

[14] Ibid, Pg, 120-141.

[15] David, G, Benner, Strategic pastoral counseling, A short-term structured model, Second Edition, 2012, pg, 1-41.

[16] David, G, Benner, Strategic pastoral counseling, A short-term structured model. Second edition, 2012, pg. 1-41.

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Evolving Nursing Practice and Patient Care Delivery Models

Evolving Nursing Practice
Evolving Nursing Practice
Evolving Nursing Practice and Patient Care Delivery Models

“This presentation will begin by welcoming remarks that are extended to everyone who is present in this session. The topic that will be explored in this presentation is, ‘The anticipated growth and changes in nursing practice over the coming years.”If you take your time to compare the health care delivery in traditional health care organizations with the one used in contemporary organizations, you will learn that modern approaches to care are better than the ones that were used in the past.

It is also important to recognize that the mode of care delivery in future will be far much better than it is today. Rapid health care reforms are currently taking place to enable nurses to provide care that meets the needs of the ever-changing population. As nurses, we must be conversant with the changes and growth that are expected to take place in nursing practice in the near future for us to be in a position to contribute positively to the reorganization of the United States’ health care delivery system (Salmond and Echevarria, 2017).

            For instance, it is anticipated that the number of nurses who will be required to deliver care in acute care hospitals will decrease while the number of those nurses who will be required to serve in the community will increase. Furthermore, it is expected that future health care organizations will reward nurses based on the quality of care they deliver, a system known as Accountable Care Organizations (Song, 2014).

In order to effectively meet the health care needs of the future community, nurses will be required to posses the right knowledge and skills to enable them to deliver quality care in accountable care organizations. Nurses are required to prepare adequately to deliver care both in hospital-based and community-based settings. The best way through which nurses can prepare for the future is by obtaining the highest level of academic qualifications from relevant academic institutions which have been accredited to provide nursing education in the United States. This way, they will adequately be equipped to deliver quality care that matches the trends and issues in United States healthcare system (Shortell, Colla, and Ramsay, 2017).

            Today’s society needs clinical advice on how it can effectively manage new infections that have a negative impact on health. As Kovner and Walani (2010) point out, the increasing need for health education among the current and future populations greatly influences the creation of nurse-managed clinics in the community. Advanced practice nurses will be assigned clinical roles in nurse-managed clinics from where they will be required to educate community members on how they can effectively manage infections which are affecting their health.

Since more jobs will be available in nurse-managed clinics in the community, nurses must be prepared enough to work as community nurses and to teach clients on how they can prevent and manage infections (Kovner and Walani, 2010).

            We should also recognize that the rates of deaths that are associated with chronic infections are on the rise in today’s society. It is anticipated that incidences of chronic infections such as cancer and diabetes will continue to rise in the near future due to the anticipated changes in lifestyle and because very few people are adequately informed of how they can effectively manage their health problems outside the hospital setting (Suter, Oelke and Armitage, 2009).

Therefore, advanced practice nurses will be expected to possess the right knowledge and skills to provide a continuum of care to patients who need clinical guidance after they will have been discharged from the hospital. In this manner, nurses will play a big role in reducing deaths that occur from ineffectively managed chronic infections (Haggerty, Reid and McKendry, 2003).

            It is anticipated that the future community will be in need of more personalized care than the current society. As Scribner and Kehoe (2017) explain, it is expected that patient-centered medical homes will be used more than hospitals in the next few years. From these medical homes, nurses will be deployed to offer constant personalized care as well as medical consultations to the community. For this reason, nurses will only be able to retain their job positions if they are competent enough to work in patient-centered medical homes and in hospital settings (Reynolds, Klink and Davis, 2015).

Based on the anticipated growth and changes in nursing practice over the coming years, I urge all of you to seek for training on how to deliver quality care in areas related to Accountable care organizations, nurse-managed clinics, continuum of care, and patient-centered medical homes in order to prepare adequately to fit in the job market in future. Thank you.”            

Nurse One supports the idea that nursing practice is expected to change and grow in the next few years, and that nurses are required to prepare adequately to deliver health care that will meet the needs of the future generation. According to Nurse One, the rate of deaths that occur as a result of chronic infections is on the rise in today’s society. It is reported everywhere in the media that the number of people who die of cancer, diabetes, and high blood pressure continue to increase each day as a result of poor health management practices.

The main reason why the number of deaths associated with chronic infections continues to rise is due to lack of knowledge on how these conditions can be managed once a patient leaves the hospital. For instance, some patients may suffer severe health consequence associated with either drug side effects or non-adherence to drugs.  In order to reduce deaths that are associated with chronic health problems from affecting the community in future, nurses will be expected to be competent enough to deliver continuum care to clients in the community.

Additionally, the number of nurses who will be expected to provide health care services in nurse-managed homes will be greater than that required to serve in hospitals. In Nurse One’s opinions, nursing practice is expected to grow and change in the next few years and only competent nurses will be able to find jobs.

Nurse One supports the idea that nursing practice is expected to change and grow in the next few years, and that nurses are required to prepare adequately to deliver health care that will meet the needs of the future generation. According to Nurse One, the rate of deaths that occur as a result of chronic infections is on the rise in today’s society. It is reported everywhere in the media that the number of people who die of cancer, diabetes, and high blood pressure continue to increase each day as a result of poor health management practices.

The main reason why the number of deaths associated with chronic infections continues to rise is due to lack of knowledge on how these conditions can be managed once a patient leaves the hospital. For instance, some patients may suffer severe health consequence associated with either drug side effects or non-adherence to drugs.  In order to reduce deaths that are associated with chronic health problems from affecting the community in future, nurses will be expected to be competent enough to deliver continuum care to clients in the community.

Additionally, the number of nurses who will be expected to provide health care services in nurse-managed homes will be greater than that required to serve in hospitals. In Nurse One’s opinions, nursing practice is expected to grow and change in the next few years and only competent nurses will be able to find jobs. The views of this nurse are consistent with ideas presented by Haggerty Reid and McKendry (2003) and by Suter, Oelke, and Armitage (2009) concerning the need for nurses to be prepared to deliver continuum care in the community over the coming years.

 References

Haggerty, J. L., Reid, R. & McKendry, R. (2003). Continuity of care: A multidisciplinary review. The British Medical Journal, 327(7425): 1219-1221.

Kovner, C. & Walani, S. (2010). Nurse-managed health centers. Nursing Research Network: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

Reynolds, P., Klink, K. & Davis, M. (2015). The patient-centered medical home: Preparation of the workforce, more questions than answers. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 30(7): 1013-1017.

Salmond, S. & Echevarria, M. (2017). Health care transformation and changing roles for nursing. Orthopedic Nursing, 36(1): 12-25.

Scribner, M. N. & Kehoe, K. (2017). Establishing successful patient-centered medical homes in rural Hawaii: Three strategies to consider. Hawaii Journal of Medicine & Public Health, 76(3): 18-23.

Shortell, S., Colla, C. & Ramsay, P. (2017). Accountable care organizations: The national landscape. Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law, 40 (4): 647-668.

Song, Z. (2014). Accountable care organizations in the US health care system. Journal of Clinical Outcomes Management: JCOM, 21(8):364-371.

Suter, E., Oelke, N. & Armitage, G. (2009). Key principles for successful health systems integration. Healthcare Quarterly, 13(1): 16-23.

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Nurse staffing: Article Critique

Nurse staffing
Nurse staffing

Nurse Staffing Article Critique Questions

Question 1: Introduction

            The authors of this article have various nursing qualifications that make them competent to carry out an investigation on the given topic. Sung-Hyun Choo is a registered nurse with a doctoral degree in nursing. Barbara A. Mark is a registered nurse with a doctoral degree in nursing, and he also possesses the Fellows of the American Academy of Nursing (FAAN) qualifications. George Knafl has a doctoral degree in nursing, Hyoung Eun Chang is a registered nurse with a Masters degree in Public Health, and Hyo-Jeong Yoon is a registered nurse.

            The current study is an empirical quantitative research that examines how nurse staffing and experiences of patients are related as well as how missed nursing care affects this relationship. The variables in the study therefore are; nurse staffing, experiences of patients, and missed care by nurses. The study population comprises of patients, nurses, and nurse managers.

            The purpose of the study is to assess the relationship between experiences of patients and nurse staffing and to find out the mediating impact that missed care has on this relationship. The researchers have used a correlational study design to carry out their research. The study is based in South Korea. A total of 208 patients and 362 nurses have been sampled from 23 treatment units in six health care facilities in the region.

Nurse staffing has been measured based on the manner in which patients and nurses perceive nursing adequacy as well as on patient-to-nurse ratios. Experiences of patients has been measured using the occurrence of adverse events, the way patients communicate with nurses, and on how patients rate the health facilities. The researchers have used the MISSCARE Survey-Patient that contains three domains to measure missed care as reported by patients.

            There are two key findings in this study. First, the researchers have found that there is a significant relationship between patients’ perceptions of nurse staffing adequacy and patients’ experiences as well as missed care as reported by patients. Second, missed nursing care as reported by patients mediates the relationship between experiences of patients and nurse staffing.

Question 2: Research Problem and Purpose

            The problem statement for this study states that, “In light of the increasing emphasis on patients’ perceptions and experiences, research on the relationships among nurse staffing as assessed using empirical and perceptual measures, patient-reported missed care, and patients’ experiences is expected to enhance our understanding of how nurses and nursing care contribute to patients’ experiences (p. 348).”

The purpose statement of the study states that, “The purposes of this study were (a) to examine the relationship of nurse staffing, as measured by nurse-perceived and patient-perceived staffing adequacy as well as by the patient-to-nurse-ratio, with patient experiences, and (b) to determine the mediating effects of patient-reported missed care on the relationship between nurse staffing and patients’ experiences (p. 348).”

This study is significant in the sense that, it will help the health facilities in South Korea to understand how patients perceive nurse staffing as well as the main factor that contributes to missed nursing care. This study is relevant to nursing because its findings will help health care organizations to learn that patients’ experiences can be improved and missed care can be reduced by providing appropriate nurse staffing.

The study is feasible to conduct because the researchers possess the right expertise to carry out the research. In addition, the subjects that the researchers can use in the study are readily available, and the health care facilities from where the study participants can be obtained are easily accessible.

Question 3: Review of the Literature

            The three major topics listed in the review of literature include; the relationship between nurse staffing and patient outcomes, the effect of missed care on nursing quality and patients’ outcomes, as well as the measurement of nurse staffing.

 Two models have been identified in the review of the literature. The first theoretical model assumes that negative patient outcomes and high rates of missed nursing care are attributed to inadequate nurse staffing. The second model states that patient’s experiences, as well as the way patients perceive missed care, are directly affected by nurse staffing.

            The review of literature perfectly describes current knowledge of the research problem because it describes what other researchers have written about the study topic as well as the gaps that new studies should fill. In addition, the review if literature has mainly focused on articles published between 2008 and 2016.

            The studies reviewed in the review of literature have been summarized based on the way they address the relationship between nurse staffing and patient outcomes, as well as in the way they describe the association between missed care and nursing quality. The studies have also been summarized based on the way they describe how nurse staffing should be measured.

Question 4: Study Framework

            The authors have explicitly described the study’s framework and their description leaves no doubt to the reader. This description can easily be followed by someone else who did not conduct the study.

 The important concepts found in the study’s framework include the samples used in the study and how they have been obtained, the measures that have been used to study the performance of variables, the methodology used to collect data, as well as how the collected data has been analyzed.

            The framework presents the relationship among the major concepts of the study. For instance, the data collection process indicates how information has been obtained from nurse managers, nurses, and patients that were selected at the sampling stage.

Question 5: Research Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses

            This article has clearly stated the study objective which also serves as the study purpose. However, the researchers have not pointed out clearly whether there are specific research questions or hypotheses being addressed.

The article’s objective states that, “The aims of this study were to examine the relationships between nurse staffing and patients’ experiences, and to determine the mediating effects of patient-reported missed care on the relationship between nurse staffing and patients’ experiences (p. 347).”

Question 6: Variables

            The major study variables are nurse staffing, experiences of patients, and missed care as reported by patients. Out of the three variables, one of them is an independent variable and two of them are dependent variables. The independent variable is nurse staffing while the dependent variables are experiences of patients and missed care as reported by patients. The performance of the dependent variables is determined by the nature of nurse staffing.

The conceptual definitions of the major variables have been provided in the study. Nurse staffing has been defined by the number of nurses, patients’ experiences have been defined by patient outcomes, while missed care has been defined by the timely responses to care that patients receive from nurses.

            The operational definitions of major variables are explained in the methods section. Nurse staffing has been defined by patients’ perception of staffing adequacy. Patients’ experience has been defined by hospital rating, adverse events, and communication. While missed care as perceived by patients has been defined by basic care and communication.

            The author has not identified any extraneous variables used in the study. Demographic variables such as age, gender, and sex of participants have not been specified in the study.

Question 7: Research Design

            The research design used in the study is correlational design. This is because the researchers are trying to investigate the relationship between dependent and independent variables as well as how that relationship is affected by one of the dependent variables.

 The correlational study design perfectly matches the study objective because it allows the researcher to examine how nurse staffing and experiences of patients are related as well as how missed nursing care affects this relationship. Its effectiveness is answering the research questions and hypotheses have not been explained because the researchers have not clearly stated the questions and hypotheses that are being addressed by the study. Since the study purpose in this research is the one that acts as the study objective, it can be concluded that correlational research design provides a means to examine the study purpose.

            The study includes interventions and this is evidenced by the use of a number of specific measures to examine the performance of variables. For instance, missed care as reported by patients has been examined by using domains such as basic care and communication between nurses and patients. Pilot study findings have been used to design the major study because the researchers have relied on previous study findings to organize their study framework.

Question 8: Strengths and Weaknesses

            One of the strengths of the study lies in the use of a large sample size that helps the researchers to minimize bias. The other strength of the study lies in the manner in which the researchers have used a correlational study design that helps them to examine the relationship among variables.

 The main weakness of the study is that the findings may not be generalized because the researchers have focused their study in health facilities in Korean context alone without integrating what might happen in other countries. In addition, other patient characteristics which have not been adjusted in the study might have contributed to the observed patient experiences.

Reference

Cho, S., Mark, B. A., Knafl, G., Chang, H. E. & Yoon, H. (2017). Relationships between nurse staffing and patients’ experiences, and the mediating effects of missed nursing care. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 49(3): 347-355.

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Renaissance Art: The Mona Lisa

The Mona Lisa

Renaissance Art

  1. Introduction

            Art in the Renaissance period was characterized by creativity, learning, and development of new forms of art. The purpose of this paper is to discuss an example of Renaissance art, in order to determine factors that identify it as the renaissance. In this regard, the Mona Lisa painting done by Leonardo da Vinci is used as an example.

Description of the Mona Lisa                                     

            This piece of art remains among the most popular across the globe and its replication is still largely used for decoration purposes and as an adornment. The painting which is considered one of the greatest pieces in the 15th and 16th centuries is classified in the Renaissance portrait art genre and was done by Leonardo da Vinci (Visual Arts 1). The Mona Lisa can be found in the Louvre Museum in Paris and is valued at over $1 billion. So famous is the portrait that one can only catch a glimpse of it in the Louvre.

            The Mona Lisa features the wife of rich silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo, Lisa Gherardini. Lisa sits on a chair, upright and sideways, and her face and chest slightly facing the viewer. Her left arm is placed on the armrest and clasped by the right arm. The position is said to be protective, thus creating a distance between her and the viewer.

  • Renaissance art characteristics in the Mona Lisa

            Renaissance art had various characteristics that were evident in a majority of pieces. These characteristics are discussed with reference to Mona Lisa.

3.1 Focus on the human figure

 The human figure gained considerable importance during the Renaissance as artists rediscovered the human body’s beauty (Fichner-Rathus 270). This is the most notable characteristic in Mona Lisa, given Leonardo’s focus on detail to ensure that he brought out Lisa’s beauty on the painting. This is achieved through ensuring symmetry and proportion. 

3.2 Realism and expression

            Images were developed to be as realistic as possible, with emphasis on emotions and gestures (Fichner-Rathus 270). Consequently, portraits of real people were common. In Mona Lisa, it is evident that the portrait appears realistic and shows emotion. It is reported that Leonardo hired musicians to keep Lisa entertained during the drawing and this may explain why she was half smiling (Visual Arts 1). The subject also appears like they are directly looking at the viewer, thus making it life-like. Additionally, the three-dimensional painting, which is also a characteristic of Renaissance makes the image appear more realistic.

3.3 Use of perspective

 Artists in the Renaissance created perspective through the use of lines and angles, light and shadow, and color, to create depth and distance (Fichner-Rathus 270). A notable characteristic of Renaissance art is the use of blue backgrounds in a bid to create depth. The background landscape in Mona Lisa consists of smoky blues and has no vanishing point. This creates an impression of great serenity and mystery as well as depth. In this painting, da Vinci uses the sfumato painting technique, where the artist uses ultra-subtle tonal graduations to create smooth and almost undetectable color transitions (Visual Arts 1).

3.4 Depictions of nature

Renaissance artists took a high interest in nature and were depicted through the inclusion of landscapes in their paintings. In Mona Lisa, the background scenery consists of a natural landscape with trees, hills, river, and bridge. This gives a natural look on the portrait.

  • Conclusion

 The Mona Lisa is an outstanding example of Renaissance art as demonstrated by its portrayal of Renaissance characteristics. The painting is not only intriguing but it also captures various characteristics of Renaissance art including a focus on the human figure, realism, and expression, use of perspective depictions of nature and three-dimensional painting. 

Works Cited

Fichner-Rathus, Lois. Foundations of Art and Design. Cengage Learning, 2014.

Visual Arts. Mona Lisa (La Gioconda) (1503-6). Visual Arts Cork, 2017.

www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/mona-lisa.htm. Accessed 7 July 2017.

Organizational Design

Organizational Design
Organizational Design

Organizational Design as it Relates to Organizational Theory

Annotated Bibliography

Abstract

 Organizational design is an important aspect in organizational theory, given the role played by organizational design in providing direction for the firm. Organizational design refers to systematic methodologies that organizations utilize in identifying organizational aspects that are dysfunctional, before realigning them to ensure that they are in tandem business goals and developing plans to make the necessary changes.

Organizational theory, on the other hand, involves the study of organizations with an objective of identifying structures and strategies for efficiency and productivity maximization. Organizational design is related to organizational theory because organizational theory seeks to study strategies undertaken by firms to enhance productivity, which essentially represents what organizational design aims to achieve.

In studying research design as it relates to research theory, a number of themes are explored in this paper. These include the impact of organizational design in promoting firm productivity and efficiency, the impact of organizational design on change management, the role of organizational design in enhancing employee performance and motivation, how organizations can ensure that they have the right fit when it comes to organizational strategy, and how the effectiveness of organizational design can be enhanced. 

Outline

  1. Organizational design
  2. Organizational theory
  3. Organizational design as it relates to organizational theory
  4. Impact of organizational design in enhancing productivity and firm efficiency
  5. Organizational design and its role in change management
  6. Organizational design and its role in employee motivation and engagement
  7. Organizational design and the concept of FIT
  8. Promoting the effectiveness of organizational design

Annotated Bibliography

  1. Tarek, S., Wilberg, J., Tommelein, I. D., & Lindemann, U. (2016). Supporting the design of competitive organizations. Journal of Modern Project Management, 4(2), 96-103. doi:10.19255/JMPM01109

            This paper addresses organizational competitiveness by illustrating the importance of adapting effectively to market changes. According to Tarek et al. (2016), external environment trends are a constant disruption to companies and the need to adopt strategies that enhance competitiveness is of great significance. In this paper, they make use of the Viable Systems Model (VSM), which is used in promoting organizational design and avoiding deficiencies. Technology adoption and external environment monitoring come out as important themes in strategic design in a bid to improve competitiveness. This paper effectively demonstrates the importance of organizational design in enhancing competitiveness and is therefore applicable to my topic.

  • Capelle, R. G. (2017). Improving Organization Performance by Optimizing Organization Design. People & Strategy, 40(2), 26-31.

            This article dwells on explaining the relevance of organizational design on organizational performance. In this article, Capelle (2017) notes that a clear understanding of current strategy is important in organization design optimization, such that the organization can be transformed into a high-performing unit. The role of organizational design in relation to the human resource is discussed, with the conclusion that the design of the organization determines its overall performance.

This includes the development of optimal organizational structures and clear lines of accountability and deliverables. People alignment is also considered an imperative factor in optimizing organizational design as it ensures efficient performance. This paper addresses a critical aspect of organizational theory which is the impact of human resource management and will be useful in addressing the employee engagement section in my paper.

  • Donaldson, L., & Joffe, G. (2014). FIT – the key to organizational design. Journal of Organization Design, 3(3), 38-45. doi:10.7146/jod.18424

            The ability to develop an organizational design that meets a company’s objectives and aligns with its strategy is considered an important factor in determining its efficiency. In this paper, Donaldson & Joffe (2014) discuss the concept ‘fit’, noting that an organizational design needs to fit the situation in order to successfully influence the performance of the organization.

Situational factors may include organizational size, competitive strategy, and task uncertainty. Donaldson & Joffe (2014) also use the contingency theory to explain how fits may be developed and misfits identified. The paper aligns well with my paper because it provides valuable details on how to promote the effectiveness of strategic design through ensuring that it fits the organization’s situation. 

  • Stea, D., Foss, K., & Foss, N. J. (2015). A Neglected Role for Organizational Design. Journal of Organization Design, 4(3), 3-17. doi:10.7146/jod.20434

            In this paper, the authors focus on the relevance of delegation in enhancing an effective organizational design. According to Stea, Foss & Foss (2015), organizations must respond to environmental changes that currently call on organizations to foster knowledge and motivation among employees. This is effectively achieved through delegation and can be realized through the development of the organizational design to create value for organizations.

The paper also discusses the question of credibility in delegation and motivation, which may affect the outcome of the exercise. This paper is a great addition to my literature review as it addresses issues affecting organizational design.

  • Nissen, M. (2014). Organization Design for Dynamic Fit. Journal of Organization Design, 3(2), 30-42. doi:10.7146/jod.8196

            Nissen (2014) discusses the concept of ‘fit’, which is considered an important aspect of organizational design. Given the constant change in the business world, organizations must adjust in order to be competitive and strategic design must seek to address these dynamics in ensuring that it works effectively for the organization.

Nissen studies various theoretical perspectives affecting fit including design orientation, manager roles, organizational systems and measurement and validation. This paper provides valuable insight into my topic and will be beneficial in explaining how organizational design success can be enhanced. 

  • Felin, T., & Powell, T. C. (2016). Designing Organizations for Dynamic Capabilities. California Management Review, 58(4), 78-96. doi:10.1525/cmr.2016.58.4.78  

            Enhancing competitiveness is subject to an organization’s ability to adapt to different environmental changes. Felin & Powell (2016) examine the development of dynamic capabilities through organizational design and note that this could be impactful in enhancing innovation. The article makes reference to Valve Corporation as an example, an organization that has been highly successful in market adaptation and strategic innovation in a fast-moving environment.

The research by Felin & Powell notes that dynamic capabilities ensure that organizations can survive in competitive landscapes and constant market changes including technology change and market demand volatility. This research will contribute to my paper through providing insights on how organizations can harness their strategic positions through organizational design.

  • Connor, A. (2015). Organizational Design that Really Works. Design Management Review, 26(3), 23-29. doi:10.1111/drev.10329

This paper addresses organizational change and its related impact on organizational design. According to Connor (2015), change and reorganization require the application of innovative strategies to ensure that the change is beneficial to the organization. In this regard, organizational design is considered imperative in ensuring that change is set up in a way that it aligns with and supports the organizational objectives.  Connor notes that integrating design into an existing system requires adjustments to ensure a strategic fit and also the need to observe, analyze and modify to allow effective implementation.    

  • Mendoza-Walters, A., & Ivanov, S. (2016). Combining passion with planning: applying organizational theory to improve business operations in non-profit organizations. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 9(2), 46-51.

This research is unique in that while a majority of articles focus on for-profit organizations, it addresses the challenges faced by non-profit organizations. Through focusing on a Washington DC non-profit, the paper demonstrates how organization theory could improve its performance, by ensuring effective planning. Mendoza-Walters & Ivanov (2016) make various recommendations for more effective performance including the implementation of more strategic division of labor, restructuring the organization, and the inclusion of technology in enhancing planning. The paper demonstrates that business efficiency can be improved through organizational theory and therefore forms a basis for understanding my topic of study.

  • Aubry, M., & Brunet, M. (2016). Organizational Design in Public Administration: Categorization of Project Management Offices. Project Management Journal, 47(5), 107-129.

Aubry & Brunet (2016) focus on public administration organizational design with the aim of determining how government offices can utilize organizational design to improve their performance. The public administration offices are required to implement multiple projects with each requiring careful consideration to ensure that it meets the needs of the public. Effective project management requires organizational design to ensure that the projects are successfully implemented.

In this relation, Aubry & Brunet (2016) suggest categorization of projects based on types and this is considered effective in enhancing project outcomes. The research concludes that organizational design is important in enhancing project outcomes and therefore effective in promoting public organizations’ performance. This paper contributes to my research by providing important aspects of organizational design and how they influence performance.

  1. Daft, R. L. (2015). Organization Theory and Design. Cengage Learning.

This book offers valuable information on organizational theory and design by discussing the two concepts in detail, culminating in a comprehensive understanding of how organizational design is related to organizational theory. The author addresses various factors influencing organizational design’s effectiveness.

This includes a discussion of the internal and external factors that influence organizational design as well as internal design elements that are useful in enhancing the organizational performance. These include technology organization size and life cycle. It also covers innovative ways of managing dynamic processes such as innovation, change, ethical values, conflict and power among others. This is a rich information source that will be of great significance in my research.

  1. Burton, R. M., Obel, B. & Håkonsson, D. D. (2015). Organizational Design: A Step-by-Step Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This book discusses the multi-contingency organizational design besides other aspects of organizational design and theory. In doing so, the authors identify two complementary problems involved in organizational design namely the partitioning of tasks and coordination of sub-unit tasks to enhance effective fit with the organizational goals.

In explaining the concept of organizational design, they approach it from a multi-contingency aspect and discuss five components namely the scope/goal, structure, strategy, processes, and people. This information provides a great understanding of organizational design and it can be established that by aligning these organizational design components, efficiency may be achieved. This book is highly valuable and will provide high-level information for reference in my research.

  1. Hunter, S. D. (2015). Combining Theoretical Perspectives on the Organizational Structure-Performance Relationship. Journal of Organization Design, 4, 2, 24-37.

In this paper, Hunter (2015) focuses on the organizational structure by noting that it plays an important role in promoting organizational performance. The paper discusses theoretical aspects on the link between organizational structure and performance. Organization design elements are influenced by various factors including environmental conditions, task characteristics, strategic orientation, and relationships. This insinuates that organizational design determines how effective an organization is in creating an organizational performance. This research will add to my literature review by demonstrating the interrelationship between organizational design and performance.

  1. McDonnell, J. M. (2015). The Role of Organizational Design in 21st Century Organizations: George Jetson and the Star Model. Journal of Transformative Innovation, 1 (1), 1-6.

As technological advancements continue to be witnessed in today’s world, business is likely to change significantly and it is this kind of changes that this article addresses through a discussion on the role played by organizational design in modern organizations. McDonnel points out that organizations must have a futuristic approach and this entails an inclusion of organizational designs that reflect strategic thinking. Organizational design is considered a way of achieving this by combining different strategies to meet today’s business environment challenges including management of people, processes, structure, and rewards. The research will add value to my research by providing valuable information on organizational design and how it impacts performance.

  1. Junqueira, E. et al. (2016). The Effect of Strategic Choices and Management Control Systems on Organizational Performance. DOI: 10.1590/1808-057×201601890

In this research, Junqueira, et al. (2016) investigate generic strategic choices and how they affect the performance of organizations. In doing so, the concepts of organizational design and organizational theory emerge and it can be established that the strategic choice taken determine the outcome in reference to organizational performance. According to the research, the strategy adopted by the organization is influenced by the competitive forces and that the organizational design is highly instrumental in influencing performance. This source provides information about strategic design and will be useful in developing an understanding of how it influences performance in the development of my paper.

  1. Chouikha, M. B. (2016). Organizational Design for Knowledge Management. New York: Wiley & Sons

Knowledge management is imperative in organizational design as it ensures that set strategies can be effectively implemented. This is articulately discussed by Choiuikha (2016) in his book on organizational design for knowledge management. The book addresses the relevance of knowledge by illustrating how organizations can anchor knowledge through individual skills, data and information, and how this can be elevated from individual to organizational learning. In this relation, knowledge transfer, knowledge acquisition and knowledge storage are considered key in enhancing organizational strategy and consequently the organizational performance. The impact of culture on knowledge management is also discussed. This book contains valuable information that will be instrumental in ensuring that my research is based on good foundations on organizational design and theory.

References

Aubry, M., & Brunet, M. (2016). Organizational Design in Public Administration: Categorization of Project Management Offices. Project Management Journal, 47(5), 107-129.

Burton, R. M., Obel, B. & Håkonsson, D. D. (2015). Organizational Design: A Step-by-Step Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Capelle, R. G. (2017). Improving Organization Performance by Optimizing Organization Design. People & Strategy, 40(2), 26-31.

Chouikha, M. B. (2016). Organizational Design for Knowledge Management. New York: Wiley & Sons

Connor, A. (2015). Organizational Design that Really Works. Design Management Review, 26(3), 23-29. doi:10.1111/drev.10329

Daft, R. L. (2015). Organization Theory and Design. Cengage Learning.

Donaldson, L., & Joffe, G. (2014). FIT – the key to organizational design. Journal of Organization Design, 3(3), 38-45. doi:10.7146/jod.18424

Felin, T., & Powell, T. C. (2016). Designing Organizations for Dynamic Capabilities. California Management Review, 58(4), 78-96. doi:10.1525/cmr.2016.58.4.78         

Hunter, S. D. (2015). Combining Theoretical Perspectives on the Organizational Structure-Performance Relationship. Journal of Organization Design, 4, 2, 24-37.

Junqueira, E. et al. (2016). The Effect of Strategic Choices and Management Control Systems on Organizational Performance. DOI: 10.1590/1808-057×201601890

McDonnell, J. M. (2015). The Role of Organizational Design in 21st Century Organizations: George Jetson and the Star Model. Journal of Transformative Innovation, 1 (1), 1-6.

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