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An analysis of policy to Prevent Smoking during Pregnancy in England
Executive summary
The incidence rates of smoking during pregnancy, and complications associated with it are still rampant in England. This is attributable to issues such as lack of strong leadership in policy implementation and inadequate infrastructures to raise awareness and training on how to prevent increase of smoking incidences during pregnancy. The proposed projects aims at evaluating the government strategies of tackling direct smoking during pregnancy on unborn child in England, with the aim of evaluating their effectiveness or establish if there is need for review.
Chapter 1: Introduction
Cigarette smoking carries a threat both to the expecting mother and her newborn. Approximately, 20% of the women smoke through their pregnancy in the UK (Department of Health, 2012). This trend is associated with numerous adverse effects such as premature births, miscarriages and prenatal mortality. Direct smoking during pregnancy is associated with number of respiratory disorders and pregnancy complications (Free et al. 2011). It is also associated with financial crisis. It is estimated that treating mothers and their children on healthcare complications associated with direct smoking during pregnancy is about £20-£87.5 per annum (Bauld, Hackshaw, and Ferguson, et al 2012).
Given these damages associated with the tobacco used on the unborn child. This paper conducts an analysis of policy to Prevent Smoking during Pregnancy in England. Although it is the government responsibility to ensure that child has the best start of life, the government policies have done very little in protecting the children from the dangers of tobacco use pre and post-birth (Chen et al. 2012).
Background/Study rationale
It is estimated that approximately 10 million adults in the UK are smokers. In England, 17% females and 22% males are smokers. Research indicates that the prevalence rates ate highest among the young population between the ages 25 and 34 years and lowest among the elderly population (McEwen et al., 2012). Smoking At Time of Delivery (SATOD) indicates that there is high rates of prenatal smoking in England. Although comparative studies indicates some decline in prenatal smoking proportion (from 15.1% to 12.7% in 2006/7 and 2012/13 respectively), the declining rate is very low (Chen et al. 2012).
Approximately, 12.7% of the women practice prenatal smoking. The national average highlights big disparities on prenatal smoking across the nation. For instance, in Blackpool, one in four (27.4%) expectant mothers smoke during pregnancy as compared to 1 in every 100 expectant mothers who smoke during pregnancy (0.5%) in Westminster. The tobacco control plan for England has established national ambition to reduce smoking during pregnancy by 11% by end of 2016 (Department of Health 2011).
Smoking has generally been banned in all public places and even in workplaces since July 1, 2007. The implementation of this rule had followed earlier implementation of similar legislation in Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Healthy Lives, healthy people tobacco plan, which was published in March 2011. It aimed at stopping promotion of tobacco use through the regulation of tobacco products.
The English government takes these responsibilities very seriously. The NHS England is expected to collect adequate data about smoking throughout pregnancy using the Carbon monoxide (CO) screening strategies. This is not compulsory requirements, indicating that current data on smoking pregnant women may not be the true picture, and may not be the most effective strategy to evaluate the extent of smoking during pregnancy (Department of Health 2011).
To start with, the government has improved its actions to stop the promotion of tobacco. This has been done through the implementation of tobacco displays and regulation of images and portrayals in the entertainment industry. Other measures include the policy of increasing taxes, introduction of initiatives to help quit and increased regulation of the tobacco products. However, the incidence rates of smoking during pregnancy, and complications associated with it are still rampant in England.
This is attributable to issues such as lack of strong leadership in policy implementation, reduced mass media campaigns, poor role models and champions that people can emulate to discredit smoking as well as enlightening the populations about dangers associated with smoking, and inadequate infrastructures to raise awareness and training on how to prevent increase of smoking incidences during pregnancy (Godfrey et al. 2010). Therefore, what are the government’s effective strategies of tackling prenatal smoking in England?
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Aims and objectives
AIM
To critique government policy to prevent Smoking during pregnancy in England
Specific Objectives
To examine the increase in prevalence rate of smoking during pregnancy
To examine government plan to reduce incidence rates of smoking during pregnancy
To examine the effectiveness of the government policy i.e. is there need for review?
Literature search strategy
The key questions that were used during literature search were structured from the study objectives. This included;
Why is there an increase in prevalence rate of smoking during pregnancy?
What is government plan or initiatives to reduce incidence rates of smoking during pregnancy?
Are the established government plans effective?
The main focus of the literature review was articles that gave definitive information from the controlled trials, randomized experiments, systematic reviews and any other article that had additional information on research topics. The inclusion criteria included papers published not more than six years ago, written in English and peer reviewed articles. Articles written in other languages, Newsletters and articles published more than six years ago were excluded.
The aim of this research was to investigate the impact of government policy on smoking during pregnancy. This aimed at evaluating the government plan to reduce incidence rates of smoking during pregnancy, and to establish if these interventions are effectiveness or there is need for review.
The standard search strategies were applied, which involved querying of the main data bases namely, London Metropolitan University Library MetCat, British Medical Journals, Library Catalogue, Wiley online library, Science Direct, Worldcat.Org, Sage journals online, NHS.Gov, NICE guideline, Parliament UK, and Local Government Website-Census. The querying was done using the key words below,
Key Words
‘stop smoking’ OR ‘Tobacco control’ OR
AND
‘government policy’ OR ‘Pregnant women’ OR
‘Smoking education’ OR ‘Quit smoking’
AND
‘Government strategies’ OR ‘Policy review’
The potentially relevant articles in identified in these databases were those written in English, published less than six years ago and strictly are peer reviewed journals. However, some articles published earlier were included into the study, to build up on the study history to current trends. (Chen et al. 2012).
From the analysis, 218 articles relating to smoking during pregnancy met the inclusion criteria. Three quarters of them were highlighting on the negative health consequences associated with prenatal smoking, only 10% of the articles tackled the issue of English policy on tobacco use. Out of these 21 articles, eight articles were analysed as indicated in Table 1.1
Ethics and anti-oppressive practice consideration
This paper will deal with ethical concerns that affect indirectly and directly the well-being of the human beings. The issue of maternal autonomy is very important. Irrespective of child’s interest, pregnant women have the right to make their own decision. This is because forcing decisions to pregnant women are ineffective strategies, and are both unconstitutional and unethical in deontological perspectives. If other members of the society have the freedom to smoke and to drink alcohol; the rights must not disappear with pregnancy (Free et al. 2011).
According to the utilitarian theory, moral imperative must take precedence over the freedom of choice. This is because the pregnant women are carrying another life, whose rights must remain reserved. Despite the increased foes in the newspaper, researchers are obliged under international laws to conduct research in a way that protects and promotes human health, including prenatal and maternal health. All ethical regulations that protect and uphold individuality, the aspects of autonomy and protection of human rights as proposed by the government and other institutions that promote ethics will be observed (Fleming et al. 2012).
Project outline
The proposed proposal consists of four chapters. These chapters help critiquing the England policy on prenatal smoking. Chapter 2 is the literature review, which consist of thematic headings including the overview of prenatal smoking in the UK, the prevalence rates of prenatal smoking in the UK, factors associated with prenatal smoking, impact of smoking to the mother and unborn child and the socio-physiological impact of prenatal smoking. This helps in understanding the general attitudes to smoking during pregnancy, and the identification of the key legislations that help reduce and prevent smoking during pregnancy.
Chapter 3 explores the theory and practice. This reflects on the government policy initiative- Smoke free legislation: The Health Act 2006. A critical analysis of the policy impact was done. To understand the policy impact better, the agency link identified is Action on Smoking and Health (ASH). This agency link is chosen because it is mainly concerned with the impact of prenatal smoking on children health, their parents and relatives.
The programme intervention identified was Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. This programme changes, strengths and weaknesses are analysed (Mackenbach, 2011). The ethical tensions and dilemmas associated with the programme are also described. Chapter 4 is the last chapter and generally consists of study conclusions, reflections, and study recommendations.
References
Bauld, L., Hackshaw,,L., and Ferguson, J. et al (2012). Implementation of routine biochemical validation and an ‘opt out’ referral pathway for smoking cessation in pregnancy, 2012, Addiction, 107 Supplement 2: 53-60
Chen, y.-F., et al., (2012). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of computer and other electronic aids for smoking cessation: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Health technology Assessment, 16(38).50.
Department of Health (2011). Healthy lives, healthy people: a tobacco control plan for England, London, Department of Health, 2011.
Free, C., et al., (2011). Smoking cessation support delivered via mobile phone text messaging (txt2stop): a single blind, randomized trial, Lancet, 378(9785): 49-55
Godfrey C. et al. (2010). Estimating the costs to the NHS of smoking in pregnancy for pregnant women and infants, 2010. York: Department of Health Sciences, The University of York. Cited in NICE, Guidance aims to protect thousands of unborn babies and small children from tobacco harm’. Available from: http://www.nice.org.uk/
Mackenbach, J. (2011). What would happen to health inequalities if smoking were eliminated?. BMJ, 342(jun28 1), pp.d3460-d3460.
McEwen. A. et al (2012). Evaluation of a programme to increase referrals to stop-smoking services using Children’s Centres and smoke-free families schemes,. Addiction, 2012, 107: 8–17.
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Alaska Airline; Airline Operations
Introduction
The airline sector has experienced remarkable development and international expansion in the previous decade. Aviation is important not just national but also international business development and provides vital socioeconomic benefits. The considerable growth is attributable for various factors including; deregulation of aviation laws and bilateral agreements among governments; growing demand as a result of quality services putting pressure on airfares thus reduce costs of travel.
In addition, there is intense competition between airline and globalization, which has contributed to the growth of the air transport with international business and tourism that has greatly facilitated the aviation flight sector. The 1978 aviation deregulation act presents new opportunities for airline’s leading to expansion of the aviation sector (Suganthlakshmi, 2011). Such expansion has also led to intense competition, in turn contributing in air disputes. The sector has been forced to restructure its operations to remain sustainable while focusing on airlines. The paper evaluates the strategic analysis of the Alaska Airline and the structure of decision making.
Part One
In the landing slot auctions how much contribution did your airline make?
In the Hong Kong arrival slot auction, Alaska airline was in the 3rd slot, which represented full-service operations. The auction was performed for 3 days while about eight landing slots were auctioned to the highest dealer. This means that, the airline contributed a total of USD 49,796,250, with investments of approximately $ 1,75,00,00,007 and return on investment (ROI) of 28%. During the auction, a total of USD 6b was invested while Alaska invested USD 1,750,000,007 that earned 1, 4, and 6 landing slots.
The significance of the Contribution
This contribution was of great importance, because, Alaska was successful in low-cost airlines with a ROI OF 28 percent. Owing to the fact that ROI is an indicator for measuring performance, it depicts a high efficiency from not only investments but also provides productive results. The focus was mainly on enhancing RASM for generating high profit margins for Alaska airline. However, based on the load elements, the only chances of enhancing RASM is to increase revenue using pricing strategy.
This is practical in terms of assessing the cost of round trip Alaska airline offer s and breakeven costs. Therefore, bidding for landing slots was performed effectively. Because Alaska airline was in the full-service category, it was in position to get rid of intense competition. As such, this move was important for airline when it comes to generating a higher contribution. Nonetheless, there was intense competition, especially in groups 1 and 2, which led to a low contribut5ion and significant losses in certain areas.
Analyse your performance, what could you have done to make more
To make more money and performance, Alaska airline could have bided a lower price for its opening bid, then increase it when necessary (Suganthlakshmi, 2011). This attempt could increase Alaska Airline’s opportunity for earning better contribution in the 1stlanding slot at low auction value. By and large, Alaska acted as the basis and supported by its core competencies while taking advantage of its rivals, which was important for increasing profitability.
Part 2
Alaska Airline was formed in 1985. It is a holding firm whose parent company operates airlines, with a staff base of around 15,000 workers and a fleet of 200 aircrafts. The holding firm and the parent company are both independently branded. The company is the seventh biggest US carrier when it comes to passenger carrier and it is widespread across US. While headquarter in Seattle, the airline has grown significantly to serve several US states.
Some of the deepening commitments were in form of ensuring optimal and efficient services. In this it is imperative to understand Michael Porter’s competitive forces, which shape the strategy. In aviation sector, competitive forces are intense and largely affect the profitability of the airline. Generally, some of the operations that would promote change include management and other associated services including catering, handling cargo and baggage (Wilhelm, 2015).
The airline’s decision to move to an all 737 fleet implies an increase in the mainline fleet to approximately 10 aircraft. In addition, a number of upcoming deliveries are likely to replace 737 fleet.
I would not go contract workers instead take into account that the airline in the community and being a good citizen. This is effective when it comes to enhancing not only the bottom line but also recognising front line employees and customers’ input to the bottom line. In short, good management requires balancing all vital competing interests and enhancing the overall revenue.
The airline is known for its dynamic innovation technologically and improvement on customer service. Therefore, senior leadership could have reduced the potential risk by increasing the airline capacity, great craft operation, solitary aircraft type, economical fares, terminus to terminus services, and rapid turnaround time at the airport, predominantly short- to medium haul routes (Hwang, 2011).
While the cost effective model has largely been a preferred model for airline, the gap between the full service carriers and low service carriers is getting smaller each day, as such, the LCCs might take over the market share of FSCs. Being that this market niche is still unexplored a lot of improvements can be done to grow it. It has been ranked highest in client contentment for old-style North American Airlines for 5 successive years.
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XYZ Capital Partners SWOT analysis
Strengths
Domestically, XYZ has a strong market presence; it takes in more commuters across US than any other carrier. The carrier is one of the largest carriers when it comes to passenger traffic. Owing to the remoteness of Alaska, air is the main form of transport. For five years consecutively it has been ranked highest when it comes to customer satisfaction for traditional North American airlines. The company has a strong operational network on its well established domestic market amid all turmoil characterized by international recession and increased terrorism the Airline still continues to grow.
Unlike its competitors, the company has been generating profit for over three decades except six years since it was conceptualized; it has enabled mergers to stay afloat. It has a great public acceptance in both travel safety and fast way of air travel. It has segmented its market by offering different services and different pricing. This model to a greater extent increase organization popularity and visibility because of specialization (Perry, 2012).
The airline staff training is intense and high in terms of quality coupled with experience earns them great customer satisfaction. The airline offer pilots extreme weather training an aspect that enhances the safety of its operations. To help navigate through an impossible terrain, the airline uses modern radar communication technology.
This also enhances the reliability and safety on its services. The company’s operations stretch back to the cold war era, when it offered chartered flights to the Soviet Union. The airline does not have competitors who fear venturing into this harsh terrain marred with extended flights. The airline obtains its greatest revenue overseas; however, it still plays a major role in national transport.
Alaska Airline has established that computes 50,000 points to enhance real-time performance of data which saves time and money. Approximately, the system saves the firm about $25 to $30 million annually (Blachly, 2012). This is the cutting edge for XYZ Capital Partners as it enables it to hold down expenses and compete effectively on routes that cost less outside of US. It has received special honors on philanthropy and community involvement this increases its acceptance by the wider community.
Weakness
A large workforce that is spread over the vast geographic areas, with inclusion of the international points, requires continual monitoring and communication increasing on the operational costs for XYZ Capital Partners. Airlines demonstrate a high spoilage rate in comparison to other sectors. Immediately flight takes off, a vacant seat is lost and is non-revenue generating. Nothing can salvage such situation that revenue is lost. Aircrafts are very expensive and require huge capital outlays (Ommani, 2011). While the commerce environment can change rapidly, the in aviation sector it is very complex to make speedy schedule and airplane variations due to staff commitments, contracts and other factors.
The greatest weakness for XYZ Capital Partners marketing mix is in the promotional strategies. This is an attempt for cost cutting to stay lucrative but might work against them on creating a new customer base or even losing customers to competitors. XYZ Capital Partners model of business not necessary it depends entirely on one source of revenue and that is passenger revenue in terms of fares. Anything that disrupts it sends the whole business on its knees. It’s absent in the lucrative certain regions market that is growing in terms of tourism and business travel also affects its operations.
Opportunities
Technological advancement can lead to cutting costs, starting with fuel efficient aircrafts to additional computerization in terms of ground operations reducing the cost of man power. Developing a symbiotic relationship with other carriers can increase passenger volume. This can be achieved by harmonizing timetables; carriers can offer services to destination on a code sharing arrangement with a partner carrier. XYZ Capital Partners offers continual opportunities to both business and leisure air travel (Porter, 2008).
The recent growth on international tourism is increasing the air traffic the airline can tap into this growing the market niche, and by so doing; it increases the revenue generating platforms and air space. XYZ Capital Partners has in-flight entertainment player to improve on customer satisfaction, which is a great marketing move that will improve the customer retention.
Threats
Global economic recession greatly affects leisure, business and optional travel that cut down the market sphere as well as the revenue in it. Fuel cost is the biggest expense for the airline as is the case everywhere; hence an upward approach can threaten the business strategy. With the surge in the insecurity that has been greatly caused by terrorism negatively affects air travel.
This applies mostly by governments to safeguard national carriers and caution them from external competition (Blake & Wijetilaka, 2015).Fluctuation in air travel in demand by the economy class market segment, which hurts the business economically. There has been an increase in personnel training costs; this has been characterized by high technological advancements and the global increase in training fee.
Marketing Mix
Price
XYZ Capital Partners has a reputation for being lowly priced in terms of air ticket fare in comparison to the competitor that is majorly delta air. The other attraction on the price cap is that you can cancel your flight and get back your fare back without any penalty. This makes XYZ Capital Partners attractive to its customers because of customer friendly policies.
In this case, there are price changes such as, reduction in price that customers receive in form of a credit for use in future flight (Wilhelm, 2015). XYZ Capital Partners has mileage, which enable one-way redemption for frequent flyers. The airline also introduced program 49 for planning mileage for Alaska residents with various benefits including email notification, fare, discounts and sales
Promotion
XYZ Capital Partners is technologically savvy and recognized for embracing technological changes to improve clients’ experience. The main mode of marketing is customer referrals it endears itself to its passengers thus creating more customers by referrals from its existing customer base. Such a marketing tool is easy to run because it is not expensive to run as compared to mega sponsorship deals with sports clubs, and television adverts that cost millions to run.
This requires working on the personnel and hiring those with a friendly character and attitude and imposing a strict code of character. The customer here is the most important aspect of the business and how you treat them determines their loyalty to your airline.
Internet being the greatest marketing platform, XYZ Capital Partners has earned a reputation as having funny and clever ads, but there is only problem is that these ads are few and far between. Such an operational philosophy of cutting down expenses though beneficial can work against them. Airline business requires a lot of visibility and constant communication with the public or you might run a risk of losing business to its rivals.
A brand has to be recognised in public at all times, most airlines fail to know that customers as such, they need being reminded why they have to be in business and the younger prospects want a visible airline, it has to do that if it has to tap into these market sphere. Therefore, XYZ Capital Partners has to look for ways of understanding such issues.
On time delivery, nobody likes delay and XYZ Capital Partners to ensure that services are delivered timely as well as performance. It has a reputation of prompt service delivery and keeping their schedules. Such a kind of reputation is a morale booster for the existing customers and new customers. Again, this less intensive marketing strategy that stirs the XYZ Capital Partners a head by generating greater customer confidence is the brand for such a dynamic market.
The airline is devoted to its clients and this is one of the leading strategies as far as the company is concern. XYZ Capital Partners should invest in Alaska Airline as services are offered through way of technology, process, and customer relations they share passion. While this is what the organisation aims to do, this is exactly what XYZ Capital Partners intends to carry forth, before investing so as to share on the same network.
Place
Since the XYZ Capital Partners is strategically located, air travel is the main mode of transport. On most occasions, residents use their services to buy goods and services. Patients are also flown for emergency services. Recently, Alaska airline expanded to other regions, particularly, Hawaii and non-airline centre so as to increase the revenue streams, an important element that should convince XYZ Capital Partners to invest.
There are plans to exit underperforming routes and cut the capacity of other routes this is to enable it fully concentrate on the more profitable routes. This is a short term strategy to due to increased competition from established airline. However, with good marketing strategies, XYZ Capital Partners can be at the top.
In business there is no jack of all trades, a company has to specialize on its core activities that way it enable it to retain your existing customer base before thinking of a new market. Furthermore, Alaska airline has developed new branding strategies for affiliate regional as well as independently owned flights that it collaborates with, hence good venture for XYZ Capital Partners. Among the companies it has subcontracted to do additional flying for the group are; Canadair CRJ-700 regional jet, SkyWest Airlines they are dedicated to serve the group and are painted in a similar manner as Alaska horizon’s.
Product
The major product it offers is low cost passengers who travel frequently to either shop or seek medical help. It offers alternatives for customers who do not have time sensitive shipment and can wait for space available services. Moreover, XYZ Capital Partners operate a wide range of flights connecting small towns to main transport centers and carry many customers in comparison to other airlines across Unites States.
On the course to increase its market share, XYZ Capital Partners can invest in other airlines such as Alaska airlines. In such collaborations, XYZ Capital Partners can sell tickets on Alaska flights, which will promote its services on global networks and connection with frequent flyers. This symbiotic kind of relationship rides on the already existing market of the two giant airlines, these minimizes the spoilage rates and in return improves profitability while keeping the operational costs low.
There is an onboard offer of beverages from a fellow US company that produces coffee. It also features on board entertainment; it is regarded as the first airline to introduce in-flight entrainments in 2003. When the sun and the moon aligned on March 2016 the Alaska airline decided to delay the flight for 25 minutes to catch this rare spectacle. In addition, Alaska airline has an accommodating gesture; it gets individuals from one point to another while offering them quality service delivery. It is not only the airline to talks to its people but also listens to them, hence offering customer service at its very best.
Analysis
Alaska Airline operates in a growing market niche where so much can be done to improve its profitability by increasing its revenue. In 2014, for instance, the airline carried over 21 million passengers with a fleet whose average age is 9.7 years. It had a reported net profit for the 4th quarter of USD148 million despite the heightened competition on that year alone it was reported to have a net profit of $571 Million excluding special items. The operating margins for 2014 expanded YOY to 17.7%. Furthermore, full year pretax margin came in at 17.2%. As its giant competitors went into restructuring, Alaska Airline turned itself into a high quality industrial company. Most of the gains that year were attributable to the price o fuel, but even without this the profit margin was substantial.
The airline is still much in growth phase, it can improve further by targeting new markets such as the lucrative Asian market and the African market as a tourism edge. The strength of the local economy especially, in the Pacific Northwest has helped keep the demand afloat, but the rise in Alaska’s margin was characterized more by the reduction in fuel cost. Its competitive capacity rose by 7% and the percentage of its market by 8% in the same year. It has launched 16 new North American markets in Seattle where Seattle signifies 55% market share.
With the recent decision to add more Q400 to grow the E175 sub fleet is interesting, this is a statement even if the fuel prices rises these means that operation margins won’t suffer too deeply, with such kind of management ideas investing in this company is profitable, there is no better time to invest in such a fast growing company but now. With the recent acquisition of virgin America it shows great growth prospective for the airline this will boost its capitalization increase revenue and then in return more profits this in return rewards shareholders with increased returns to investment.
If I were to take a personal stand, I would therefore recommend any prospective investor to put their money in this company because it has proven sustainable over the years, generation profit for 33 years for a business operation than span close to 39 years.
Conclusion
Based on the discussion and SWOT analysis, it is clear that Alaska airline is in the transformation stage, whereby it is focusing on its strengths while capitalizing on potential opportunities. The very objective of Alaska airline may be achieved if it puts emphasis to fulfill the demand of users; implement appropriate marketing strategies; and improve services offered particularly dewing inflight and post-flight.
References
Blachly, Linda ( 2012). “Alaska Airlines places $5 billion 737, MAX order”. Air Transport World. Archived from the original on October 11, 2012. Retrieved 1/5/2016
Blake, Martin & Wijetilaka, Shehan (2015). “5 tips to grow your start-up using SWOT analysis”. Sydney. Retrieved 1/5/2016.
Hwang, Inyoung (2011). “Alaska Air to Replace AMR in Dow Jones Transportation Average”. Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on May 9, 2012. Retrieved 1/5/2016
Ommani, Ahmad (2011). “SWOT analysis for business management” 5 (22). African Journal of Business Management: 9448–9454.
Perry, Dominic (2012). “Alaska orders 50 Boeing 737s in $5 billion deal”. London: Flight global. Archived from the original on October 11, 2012. Retrieved (1st May, 2016).
Wilhelm, Steve (2015). “Alaska Airlines logs big boost in passengers as it combats rival Delta”. Puget Sound Business Journal. Retrieved (1st May, 2016).
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Resource Curse in Nigeria
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to critically analyze the extent to which Nigeria is under a resource curse epidemic resulting from impoverished governance and lack of transparency. The paper will illustrate Nigerian resource curse using three evidences. First instance, the country has been experiencing civil wars especially in the resource endowed regions. It is because of the minerals that communities fight against each other with the assistance of the political leaders. The greedy leaders cause troubles in the resource-rich regions and distract the locals from demanding their rights in order to exploit the minerals for their personal gains.
An example is the Boko Haram militants who are politically motivated to cause chaos and are even funded using the revenue generated from the minerals. Top leaders lack transparency on the way on the amounts generated from the minerals since they collude with the mining industries for political reasons (Gaard, 2015). When there is lack of transparency, accountability lacks for the minerals hence the common citizens’ end up living in poverty instead of the resources helping them to improve their living standards. Since most of the people are uneducated, lack the necessary skills needed to prompt demand for government accountability thus they are taken advantage of by those who are in power.
Resource Curse
Countries rich in minerals and gas should use the resources to provide an essential source of funding for development purposes. However, it seems exploitation of such natural resources is linked to inequality, poverty, poor public services, and slow economic growth. The paradox is what is referred to as the resource curse. In developing countries, however, the resource curse epidemic is mostly in existence due to impoverished governance that lacks transparency (Butler, 2014).
Dutch Disease
Resource curse is also called “Dutch disease”. (The Economist coined the term in 1977 to describe the impact of the North Sea gas bonanza on the economy of the Netherlands, whose exports of natural resources led to foreign exchange inflows which drove Resource-rich countries are overwhelmed by a phenomenon up the value of the currency. The overvalued currency made domestic manufacturing, agriculture, and other exports less competitive.) This illness affects both well-governed and poorly-governed countries (Aguet, 2015). The discovery and exploitation of natural resources, such as oil, gas and minerals, do not automatically translate into sustainable economic growth and prosperity. Sub-Saharan Africa resource curse
In Africa, the top eight oil producers in 2011 were Nigeria, Algeria, Angola, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, the Republic of Congo and Equatorial Guinea. Many resource-rich African countries make poor use of their wealth. Instead of creating prosperity, resources have often fostered corruption, undermined economic growth, incited armed conflict and damaged the environment.
Corruption is widespread in many of Africa’s most resource-rich countries. Instead of investing resource revenue into infrastructure and education, crooked politicians, often in conspiracy with the companies mining the resources, siphon proceeds from the region’s mineral and petroleum wealth into their own pockets.
Rent as Percentage of GDP
As a share of GDP, sub-Saharan African resource rents are higher than those of any other region in the world, according to the World Bank. For example, the Republic of Congo has the highest total resource rents of 64% in Africa. Equatorial Guinea, with a government widely seen as autocratic, has the worst control of corruption score among African countries. It also has very high resource rents of 47%. Nigeria, where oil rents amount to almost 30% of GDP, has been plagued by conflict.
Resources Comparison with Developed Countries
Resources do not automatically lead to poor outcomes. For instance, North America produces more oil than Africa, but it has the lowest resource rents as a share of GDP and has good governance ratings. Canada remains among the top ten world oil producers, according to the US Department of Energy, but has one of the least corrupt governments in the world, also according to the World Bank. On the other hand, Norway is one of the top ten exporters of crude oil in the world, while maintaining its stature as a permanent leader of the United Nations Human Development Index.
Overview of Nigeria
The country is endowed with minerals and natural oil. It is ranked as one of the leading oil exporters in the world. Its governing structure highly depends on revenue generated from oil and ignores other investments (Ushie, 2013). The country experiences civil and ethnic clashes. Additionally, Nigeria is ranked as a third world country.
Benefits of minerals in Nigeria
High rents – Sub-Saharan Africa resource rents are by a margin higher than other countries in the world according to the World Bank measure of GDP. Rent is defined as the difference between production value at global prices and the sum of the cost of oil production, minerals, natural gas, forests, and coal (Christy, 2015). Nigeria has one of the highest resource rents as a measure of GDP but has one of the lowest controls of corruption scores among developing nations (Ezekwesili, 2015).
Reduced unemployment due to numerous job offerings in the mines. Most of the casual laborers and data collection workers are hired from the local communities. Income earned assists in raising their income levels.
Improved livings standards from the income generated in mines. When the locals use their wages for investment, they raise their standards of living and that of the community in general. Mines serve as income generator for the local communities (Aguet, 2015).
Increase in government revenue from taxation and export of minerals. Companies operating in the mines are taxed from their gross income thus providing revenue to the government. The revenue is then used to upgrade infrastructures and provide public amenities for the citizens of Nigeria.
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Causes of Resource Curse in Nigeria
Overdependence on natural resources. Nigeria could be prosperous if only it exercised good governance, transparent mining deals, had stronger disclosure and had control of corruption. Good governance means having economic policies that encouraged diversified economies and discouraged over-dependence on natural resource rents.
Lack of transparency- Another resource curse emerges from transnational companies that coerce with politicians to meander the country’s natural resources for their personal gains. The country has made little progress in enhancing transparency. Though the country has joined EITI, its people still view their leaders as corrupt (Halidu, 2015). The leaders have not taken a step from lack of transparency to actual accountability that requires a nation with the training and skills needed for overall effectiveness and monitoring.
Lack of expertise skills by locals. Skills required for effective monitoring of transparency require funding that the government of Nigeria is not able to provide. The private sector, multilateral banks, and bilateral donors offer the financial support needed for programs that educate citizens in accounting and tracking of revenue expenditure. The citizens of the country require the technical and analytical skills to be able to track government expenses. However, if the citizens do not have the necessary skills, they are not in a position to hold public officials accountable for the wrongful spending of public resources and revenue (Ezekwesili, 2015).
Economic gap between poor and the rich. It’s not surprising that the dominant factors leading to Nigeria’s civil war are economic. The factors that contribute mainly for the risk of war are levels of income, the rate of economic growth, and governing structure. Still, if a country is poor, is economically declining and hugely depends on natural resources for export, it surely faces a risk of experiencing civil war. In Nigeria, there is a big financial gap between the rich and the poor. The rich entice the poor to engage in war while they are using their status and finances to get profits from the country’s resources (Ezekwesili, 2015). Natural resources end up springing evil instead of creating prosperity for the citizens.
Detached government. The detachment of Nigeria’s government creates a route through which natural resources rent increase. Since the government is resource-rich, it does not need other revenue source, and, therefore, it becomes detached from its citizens. In the majority of the countries that pay high tax, they scrutinize their governments on how it spends its revenue. It can, therefore, be seen that if there is no tax, representation of the people does not take place but if the electorates pay taxes, they will be represented. The government ignores the needs of the people since it gets revenue from rents. The result is an underdeveloped economy with the majority being poor (Gaard, 2015).
Centralized resources. Natural resources are mostly found in one part of the country, in the peripheral region. Due to poor governance, the politicians know that the people in this region are a ready prey for secessionist political movements. Instead of the people focusing on development and using the resources to create diversity in other investments, they get corrupted in their minds and cease to do constructive businesses (Gaard, 2015). The negative energy and statements usually result in civil wars and the same politicians that were inciting the people to end up benefiting from their resources.
Coercion of politicians with the rebels. Poor governance and lack of transparency create tension among political rivals and the citizens. When the ruling government has no control over the opposition and the corrupt government officials, it creates room for the existence of rebel groups and organizations. In Nigeria, Boko Haram is one of the rebel groups that is said to be politically involved. Politicians fight amongst themselves through the rebel groups. The natural resources increase the motivation for the rebel groups as they facilitate them financially especially when some politicians are involved.
The politicians use the natural resources to facilitate the rebels to gain power or fight the existing government (Patrick, 2012). When the rebels increase in power and the government structure is weak, the ordinary citizens end up suffering. Instead of the people enjoying the resources, they are mostly scared and end up running away to protect themselves. When the natural resources facilitate rebellion in a country, the resources become a curse instead of a solution.
Results of Resource Curse on the Country
Civil wars- Countries with poor governance that lacks transparency are prone to war especially if the country is endowed with abundant natural resources. Nigeria has continuously been fighting civil wars and is one of the most corrupt nations in the world as ranked by World Bank’s control of corruption Index. In Nigeria, oil rents an amount equivalent to 30% of the GDP and the country has been in conflicts (Ezekwesili, 2015). Dependence on natural resource insulates leaders from public accountability and pressure. Though Nigeria has abundant natural resources, it is short of paramount checks on government control including a democratic culture. In past years, violent war has plagued Nigeria making oil a curse instead of a blessing to the majority of citizens.
Low economic growth. A mixture of transparency issues and poor impoverished governance is lethal in Nigeria. Sub-Saharan Africa resource rents are by a margin higher than other countries in the world according to the World Bank measure of GDP. Rent is defined as the difference between production value at global prices and the sum of the cost of oil production, minerals, natural gas, forests, and coal (Collier, 2011). Nigeria has one of the highest resource rents as a measure of GDP but has one of the lowest controls of corruption scores among developing nations.
However, natural resources do not automatically cause poor economic outcomes or become a natural epidemic curse. For example, North America has a higher oil production capacity compared to Nigeria and Africa in general, yet it has a low resource rate as a percentage of GDP and it has a good governance structure (Halidu, 2015). Still, Canada, one of the top oil producing countries has the least corrupt government worldly. Norway is considered as a perennial global leader yet it is one of the highest exporters of crude oil. As witnessed in the three countries, North America, Canada and Norway, the resource curse can be avoided if the governance structure is transparent and is in control of corruption (Lawson & Greenstein, 2012).
Low income for the locals. Often, African nations coerce with Western organizations to reach deals that mutually benefit them at the expense of the nation. There is no transparency in tendering of contracts. Since Western organizations are more powerful and have the ability to pay more, African leaders allow to be influenced to give contracts to western companies without thinking of the local industries predicament (Paltseva & Roine, 2011). The locals become the casual laborers for the Western organizations in the mining of their country’s resources. The organizations are highly paid by the government since the leaders know they have extra benefits from the payments.
Demoralization of the local industries. The local industries are demoralized, and some end up closing since they are unable to compete with the Western organizations (Marie, 2010). Even though some of the domestic industries have the capability of giving the same services as the Western organizations, they are not given the same opportunity even if they submit their tenders. The locals end up being enslaved in their territories and doing manual jobs in their land while the Western organizations and the corrupt government officials reap high income.
Ethnic wars. Nigeria is an ethnically diverse society. Though people lobby the government, the lobbying is not necessarily for the welfare of the whole nation but individual and group interests. The government is ethnically divided leading to poor delivery of services to the public (Collier, 2011). On the other hand, electorates only elect someone because they belong to the same ethnic group.
Instead integrating the nation, the ethnic tribes have divided the nation. People become self-centered even in the use of the natural resources. Those in power exploit the resources to fight other tribes. Since there are different resources in the different regions of the country, instead of the government ensuring there is an equitable distribution of the resources; it uses the resources to fight its ethnic rivals (Ushie, 2013).
Displacements. Mining of oil in Nigeria has displaced thousands of people. The government gives license to extractive industries without first considering the welfare of the community. Irresponsible extraction of oil and other minerals has resulted in epidemics, displacement, and hunger for affected communities. In the case of Boko Haram, it is the dire urge to control the resources that provoked the existing conflicts between the communities in Northern Nigeria.
The licensed corporations force the communities to leave their land without prior notice or consultation (Collier, 2011). The community inhabiting the region endowed with the natural resource should be the main beneficiaries of it. Poor governance resulting from corruption forces the community to seek other means of survival instead of using the resources to upgrade their well-being for large corporations and political gains.
Poor people in the rural areas are not essentially equipped with skills to stand up to such extractive projects or fight for their rights (Pradhan, 2013). Still, such communities highly depend on the natural resources for their survival and maintenance of their traditions and livelihood. Unfortunately, the communities live in remote regions and lack enough education. The communities also have a poor justice system that acts as an inhibitor to getting to decision makers, comprehend decision-making process, and come up with appropriate measures to claim their rights. If riots do not happen, the communities leave their land injured and poorer.
Underutilization of Local Skills Leading to Low Living Standards. Mining industries are not poor and usually employ few unskilled personnel. Most of the skilled labor is imported from abroad. The need for heavy technological machines and expertise skills require the companies to seek for Western labor since most of the locals have skill and expertise limitation. The government is not keen on education quality making most of its citizen’s lack the necessary skills needed for the resource industry (Akpabio, 2013). The public schools lack enough equipment to teach adequately the theoretical and practical skills needed for the market.
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Why it is Hard to Fight Resource Curse
Nigerian government is not committed to end corruption and exercise transparency. Since most of the government officials are after wealth, they concentrate on how to enrich themselves instead of the welfare of ordinary citizens (Paltseva & Roine, 2011). They use their power to selfishly gain from the mines.
Collusion of political leaders with western industries. Western industries offer high-rank officials large sums of money for them to obtain license and extract minerals at the expense of the local industries. Instead of growing the local industries, they end up destroying them.
Civil and ethnic wars. There is a lot of ethnic and civil war in Nigeria and most of it is attributable to the mines. People get caught up in fighting and relocating to safer environments such that they do not get the opportunity to work and reap from the mines (Akpabio, 2013).
Extraction industry requires expertise skills which are imported from abroad. Local people do not have the required knowledge and skills to handle complex equipment required for accessing and extraction of minerals. They are only employed to do casual jobs, thus do not get high wages to improve their lives.
International Initiatives and Financial Institutions
The Equator Principles (EP) is a voluntary Programme that requires borrowers to adhere to social and environmental standards before the participating banks will provide loans. Launched by ten banks in 2003, less than a decade later more than 70 banks are participating, covering more than 70% of project finance in emerging economies.
US Congress enacted the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. It requires extractive industries that are listed on the US stock exchange to make public the type and amount of payments they make to governments (Christy, 2015). The European Commission also recently proposed transparency requirements that are in some respects stricter than Dodd-Frank which has so far stalled. Publish what you pay (PWYP) also pursues similar aims.
The Open Government Partnership (OGP), launched in 2011, is another international action for more government transparency and accountability. The Extractive Industries Transparency International Initiative (EITI) pursues similar aims.
Recommendations
The resource curse is avoidable. Nigeria could be prosperous if it practiced good governance: transparency in its dealings with mining, oil and gas companies; stronger disclosure and anti-corruption rules; and economic policies that promote diversified economies and discourage dependence on resource rents.
Equator banks should establish an independent monitoring mechanism to ensure that the lenders and borrowers are doing what they purport. The international action is needed. These reforms might help countries across Africa beat the resource curse and translate natural resource riches into sustainable and inclusive growth.
Transparency alone, however, is not sufficient. Nigeria, for example, has joined EITI, yet the country is still widely viewed as corrupt by its people, according to World Bank indicators. Taking the step from transparency to actual accountability requires a civil society with the skills and training for effective monitoring.
Conclusion
If a government is co-opted by partisan interests, it increases opportunities for favoring specific groups in the community through a budget allocation in exchange for political power. Also, if citizens are used to the fact that wealth results from neither productive efforts nor work but from having contacts within the government, they will have less motivation to train themselves on their rights. The great focus of political and economic power means there are fewer incentives to invest in other industrial sectors.
In the end, it leads to high levels of poverty, inequality, low democracy, political instability, civil wars, all of which undermine economic growth. Nigeria heavily depends on natural resources for revenue collection and does not put a lot of effort investing in other sectors. The poor citizens do not have adequate representation in the government since each region is treated differently. The natural resources that are supposedly meant to enrich and improve the living standards of the people as seen in North America and Canada have instead facilitated corruption resulting in poor economic growth and poverty in developing countries.
How Is Globalization Affecting the Key Actors in the International System?
Introduction
Globalization basically has no precise definition. In actual fact, globalization is in danger of becoming the truism of the modern era. Even so, the word globalization encompasses aspects of an extensive perception that there is a widening, deepening and accelerating of global interconnectedness in virtually every aspect of life (Rourke & Boyer, 2000).
At the core of globalization is a global shift; meaning, the globe being shaped by technological and economic forces, into a collective political and economic arena. The three main perspectives with regard to globalization include transformationalist, the sceptical, and the hyperglobalist viewpoints (Verma & Singh, 2010).
Hyperglobalists: those who hold this viewpoint maintain the world today is a more and more global world wherein countries are being subject to immense political as well as economic processes of transformation. These processes serve to erode and fragment countries and reduce the power of political leaders. In circumstances such as these ones, countries are becoming gradually more the ‘decision- takers’ rather than the ‘decision-makers’ (D’Anieri, 2011). The sceptical: those with this viewpoint strongly oppose the perspective of hyperglobalists and maintain that present-day global circumstances are not unprecedented.
According to them, although there has been an increase in social and international activity in the past few years, this has served to reinforce and enhance the powers of state in a number of domains (D’Anieri, 2011). Transformationalists: those who have this view maintain that globalization is producing novel economic, political as well as social situations that are actually altering powers of the state and the context wherein countries operate. Transformationalists do not try to envisage the outcome (Popa, 2014). They maintain that it is uncertain – but assert that politics is not just rooted in nation-states.
Globalization
Globalization can suitably be seen as a process which exemplifies a change in the spatial organization of social transactions as well as relations, resulting in interregional or transcontinental flows and networks of activities, interaction as well as power (Kilic, 2015). Globalization is typified by the following: integration of international/global economic decision-making, integration of international economic decision-making, exponential growth in global fiscal transactions, increases in global Non-Governmental Organizations and Activities (NGOs), and strengthened political International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2006).
Furthermore, globalization is typified by 4 kinds of change:
(i) globalization entails a stretching of economic, political and social activities across political regions, frontiers, and countries.
(ii) Globalization involves the intensification of interconnectedness as well as flows of migration, finance, investment, and trade.
(iii) The increasing intensity and extensity of international interconnectedness could be associated with an increase of international processes and interactions, as the development of global communication and transport systems increases the rate of the dissemination of information, capital, people, goods and ideas (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2006).
(iv) The rising intensity, extensity and rate of international interactions can be linked to their increasing impact such that the effects of distant occurrences could be very considerable in other places.
In fact, the most local events and occurrences could have considerable international implications. As such, the boundaries between international affairs and domestic matters can become more and more blurred. On the whole, globalization could be described as the broadening, increasing, accelerating and rising impact of international interconnectedness (Nederveen & Dasgupta, 2009). When globalization is thought of in this manner, then patterns of international relations and connections could be empirically mapped in all major domains of human activity.
Principal actors in international system
In the international system, the key actors include country government, international organizations, non-government organizations, multinational enterprises, inter-governmental organizations, and transnational corporations.
State Actors
On the modern world stage, the state is certainly one of the oldest and universally recognized actors. A State refers to a political unit which has sovereignty over a territory and the citizens in that territory (Gaur, 2015). Examples of states include sovereign country governments such as Italy, Canada, USA, UK, and Egypt among other countries.
Intergovernmental Organizations
Even as States are still the leading and main actors on the global stage, other important actors also exist such as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). These are created by states, often through a treaty. The common IGOs are International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, International Criminal Police Organizations, and the World Bank Group. IGOs mainly do not have a way of enforcing state compliance with their decisions, perhaps except with the assistance of powerful nations (Kegley Jr. & Wittkopf, 2004).
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
Not every actor on the world’s stage has governmental roles. NGOs are essentially not-for-profit voluntary organizations which support public good or pursue it. These organizations are by and large involved in such things as economic development, issues pertaining to human rights, social welfare, as well as humanitarian assistance. Common non-governmental organizations are Greenpeace, the Amnesty International, Oxfam, and the Red Cross (Nederveen, & Dasgupta, 2009).
Multinational Enterprises
Theother significant grouping of actors comprises multinational enterprises (MNEs). These are for-profit organizations with presence in more than 1 country. It is notable that some multinational enterprises such as Sony, General Electric, General Motors, and Wal-mart have very large amounts of monetary resources that equal or exceed the resources of smaller nations like Burundi, Fiji and Somalia. It is notable that an MNE’s interests do not essentially coincide with those of the countries wherein they do business, or even the MNE’s home country (Seitan, 2014).
Sub-state actors or domestic actors
These comprise groups of persons who have the same interests not beyond the countries which can affect the foreign policy of the State. Examples include tobacco sector and automobile sector in USA. These sectors, in essence, have interests in the country’s foreign fiscal policy so that they may sell automobiles or cigarette products overseas and decrease importations of competing products produced overseas. They can influence the decisions made with regard to their country’s laws with the aim of protecting the rights of workers (Antonelli, & Fassio, 2016).
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Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)
These are organizations whose members comprise at least 3 countries. These organizations are formed by countries to resolve common problems that give them authority of making collective decisions to deal with various problems and issues on the international agenda (Francioni, Musso & Vardiabasis, 2013). In IGOs, the representatives of country governments assemble to talk about issues which are of shared interests to member countries. There are 2 major kinds of Intergovernmental Organizations: the global Intergovernmental Organizations and the regional Intergovernmental Organizations.
Global Intergovernmental Organizations are organizations with universal or nearly universal membership; this means that each country is a member such as the International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, and the United Nations. Regional Intergovernmental Organizations are essentially a subset of countries as members basing upon a certain interest or region, for instance the European Union and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (Kegley Jr. & Wittkopf, 2004).
There are several reasons that cause countries to create or join Intergovernmental Organization. As per liberal institutionalism, states form Intergovernmental Organizations since it is in their best interest to form. With Intergovernmental Organizations, some problems or issues could be resolved easily and cheaper than without them. In particular, liberal institutionalism is focused on collective problems, for instance the security dilemma, the appeal to execute competitive tariffs, as well as the difficulty in agreeing to protect the environment (Art & Jervis, 2011).
Countries should correspond with one another and oversee other countries in order to ensure that they are actually sticking to their commitments to acknowledge many of the problems. For instance, in the case of free trade, the World Trade Organization was created to coordinate the negotiation of tariffs and offer a mechanism for dispute resolution. Some of these tasks may be more complex and costly to implement without the Intergovernmental Organizations (Taylor et al., 2014).
There are times in which Intergovernmental Organizations are not only formed to resolve problems but also to offer a platform for discussing crucial issues (Art & Jervis, 2011). The United Nations General Assembly has no predetermined agenda but offers a forum for countries to talk about and debate matters that come up. Likewise, one of the goals of the World Trade Organization is to organize meetings at which countries would negotiate to resolve major issues (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2006).
Common Intergovernmental organizations and their functions
The United Nations: This is in charge of maintaining international peace and security. It also develops friendly relations amongst countries. It also seeks to accomplish international cooperation in resolving global problems. Furthermore, it functions as a center for harmonizing the actions of states. World Trade Organization: this organization manages disputes that arise from trading partners.
It also monitors trade in agriculture and manufacture commodities. ASEAN: this organization promotes regional economic, social and culture cooperation amongst the nations situated in the Southeast Asia region (Vadlamannati, 2015). NATO: this organization is a system of joint defense in which the member countries agree to collective defense in response to a military attack by a country that is not a NATO member state.
Transnational Actors
These are actors which function below the state level. However, they function across the state borders. The 2 sorts of transnational actors include nongovernmental organizations and multinational/transnational corporations. Multinational/Transnational Corporations: Multinational corporations are firms which have headquarters in one country but do business extensively in other countries. Such companies are based in one country but have divisions that operate in other nations (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2006). Put simply, such a firm is a big organization operating globally in different nations at the same time, with fixed facilities and staff members in state.
Types of multinational companies
Industrial corporations manufacture their products in production facilities in different states and sell them to businesses and clients located in different states. The biggest multinational companies operate in the automobile, oil and electronic industries. Virtually every multinational corporation has its headquarters in the Group of Seven countries. Examples of these firms include Sony, Honda, Toyota, BP, BMW, General Motors, Wal-Mart, Total and Apple. Financial institutions like banks: these do business globally but have more restrictions compared to industrial corporations (Mehrabanfar, 2015). Examples include international airlines like Asiana Airlines, Virgin Atlantic; Hilton Hotels & Resorts and Sheraton; and services like McDonald’s fast-food chain.
Multinational corporations are becoming more and more powerful as autonomous actors. A lot of the industrial multinational corporations, Wal-Mart for instance, have yearly revenues of tens of billions of dollars annually. Multinational corporations can match most global companies in monetary resources as well as size. The biggest intergovernmental organizations, which is the United Nations, has an estimated two billion dollars annual revenue, which is really small in comparison to over 250 billion dollars for the largest multinational corporations.
The biggest country economically, USA, has government revenues of over $2 trillion annually. This clearly demonstrates that the power of multinational corporations does not rival the biggest countries but in fact surpasses a lot of poorer countries (Francioni, Musso & Vardiabasis, 2013). Multinational corporations are viewed as citizens of the world and they are beholden to not any government.
Head of Dow Chemicals Company once envisioned to purchase an island to construct the company’s head office. In such view, multinational corporations act internationally in the interests of their global stockholders. In actual fact, they do not owe loyalty to any country. Multinational corporations are motivated by the need to maximize profitability (Nederveen, & Dasgupta, 2009).
The operations of multinational corporations support an international business infrastructure linking a global community of businesspersons. For instance, an American manager who arrives in Tokyo Japan does not find a confusing and puzzling scene of strange customs, locations, as well as languages. Instead, this manager would be able to move through a known series of faxes and telephone calls, multinational hotels, airport lounges, business conference facilities, and international news broadcasts – most likely hearing the English language spoken in all of these (Mehrabanfar, 2015).
Moreover, multinational corporations contribute to the development of their host country. As transnational companies operate in other countries, they create job opportunities for the locals in that country and in so doing help to stabilize the economy in that particular country.
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
In the contemporary world, a lot of people find that by joining nongovernmental organizations, they may be able take part in the global system and lobby to influence international organizations. Most have joined as members of one or more nongovernmental organizations, which have roughly 30,000 members worldwide. Nongovernmental organizations are private global actors whose members are not countries, but rather volunteers from populations of 2 or more countries that have formed organizations to foster their common interests and ideals for the purpose of influencing the policies of intergovernmental organizations and country governments.
Nongovernmental organizations handle many international issues and seek changes in the world for various causes like human rights, environmental protection and disarmament, among others (Nederveen & Dasgupta, 2009). Many nongovernmental organizations pursue objectives that are very much respected and positive, hence do not result in any controversies or a lot of resistance.
NGOs interact with multinational companies, nation-states, and sub-state actors, plus other NGOs. NGOs are increasingly becoming recognized in the UN and other forums, as real actors together with countries but are not equal to them. Some of the groups have a political purpose, some a humanitarian purpose, while others have an economic purpose.
There are times in which nongovernmental organizations mix efforts by means of transnational advocacy networks (Antonelli & Fassio, 2016). By joining nongovernmental organizations, a lot of people learn that they may take part in the global system and lobby to influence multinational organizations.
Examples of nongovernmental organizations
A nongovernmental organization that particularly fights for human rights is the Amnesty International; a global movement of individuals campaigning for globally acknowledged human rights for everyone. They carry out research and generate actions aimed at preventing or ending serious human rights abuses and demanding justice for people whose human rights have been infringed.
The main issues which have been campaigned include freedom of the press, welfare of children, protection of civilians during armed conflicts, rights of women, disability rights, rights of people with AIDS, human impact of pollution and environmental degradation among others (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2006). The other sort of nongovernmental organizations is the religious movement.
They are a politically active organization rooted in strong religious beliefs. Even though religious movements had a powerful influence in politics in the past decades for instance being able to cause a war between communities with different religious beliefs, religious movements these days are in fact peace makers between conflicting countries.
Political Groups that Advocate Violence: Terrorists
Political factions which support violence or terrorism may really not refer to themselves nongovernmental organizations, but they operate in more or less the same fashion which is by interacting with countries and with relevant populations or institutions by means of violence and terrorist attacks. These groups have great power. They influence the international relations between different countries. One group that is currently active is the Islamic State group.
International Criminal Groups
These actors are that are seen as transnational actors but they act in an illicit fashion. Most of these them have a great capacity of monetary resources which gives them the ability to influence the policies of the state (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2006). Some international criminal groups can even threaten the security of the country. They are mainly operated secretly making it not easy for the authorities and the police to find them.
These groups are largely involved in various crimes including human trafficking, drugs, prostitution, as well as firearms. Examples of international criminal groups include the Sicilian Mafia in Italy, Yakuza in Japan, and also Triads in Taiwan, Macau, and Hong Kong, Macau (Art & Jervis, 2011).
Impacts of Globalization
There are several effects that emerge from globalization which impacts different economies of the world. The production of goods and services is affected by different elements of globalization. This has also seen the development of different approaches of production such as capital and other inputs and labor that are primarily dependent on the levels of globalization.
Additionally, competitiveness as seen in producing a good or service has resulted in the diffusion of technology that has resulted in the initiation of nations to other developed cities (Gaur, 2015). Having considered this, globalization is therefore ascribed as the force behind the efficiencies that have been experienced in affecting investment opportunities of different organizations within different nations and markets.
Investments are known to play a central role in technological transfer, formation of global investment and in industrial restructuring which have an effect in the national level (Luković, 2015). New technological advancements in different economies additionally remain an essential factor in globalization that stimulate competition and enhances the diffusion of nations through foreign direct investments.
Perception in world politics
Facts do not speak for themselves. Facts are organized by concepts, structured by theories, interpreted by worldviews and assessed in the light of individual and subjective value systems. Realism: this view depicts the world’s political system as a disordered chaotic struggle for security and power amongst competing nation-states. There is no higher authority besides these countries (Verma & Singh, 2010).
As such, countries individually, or alongside other countries, provide for their own defense. In essence, the only effectual way of assuring security is power. Idealism-Liberal Internationalism: this view maintains that there is reason to believe that the leading global role of countries may in fact be declining (Art & Jervis, 2011). Therefore, the world should be described not just in terms of country interactions, but also in terms of growing community.
Conclusion
In conclusion, even though countries remain as the most significant actors in the global system in today’s world, non-state actors have a growing power and influence in globalization. One of the biggest multinational enterprises has annual revenues which actually exceed some of the gross domestic product of poorer countries and this demonstrates their growing influences. As the world keeps globalizing, it would really not be easy to different between multinationals, states and other actors in a period of collapsing states and reemerging countries.
References
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What is Child Development?
Child development basically is any transition in human beings between birth and the end of maturity. It is progressive and is bound to affect the next change or preceding development of a child. Child development may be as a result of many factors including; getting educated, environmental factors and the completion of adolescence. They are many development times in a child before being an adolescent. (Feldman, 2012, pg 67) A child is referred to as a new born between the first 4 weeks of childhood, an infant between 4 weeks and 1 year, a toddler up to 3 years, a preschooler 4-6 years, school aged child 6-13 and an adolescent as from 13 years up to 19 years.
There are many factors that lead to proper child development; parents being one of the many factors, the parents hence play a key role. They help the child to blend socially, academically and reach development wholly. A child is also supposed to receive good care for any chance of proper development which should be the case in order to reach full development. There are so many theories that define child development, such a theory is the ecological systems theory brought up by Urie Branfenbreener who based his postulates on four systems .These were Microsystems, Ecosystem, Macrosystem and Mesosystem .The systems clearly give directives on development. (Feldman, 2012, pg 87)
Jean Piaget a Swiss scholar also developed a theory solely on animals. He came up with stages which include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete stage, formal operations stage which is the last stage. During the sensorimotor stage the child is able to perceive the unseen .At the preoperational stage children explicate their surrounding using symbols of the mind such as words and images.
With this the child is able to apply them in their childish endeavors assuming that they know better and very well as compared to other people. They tend to display ego mostly and knowing more than most people .The concrete stage shows how children begin to think differently and bear a sense of mind. They are able to make it out of situations just by putting their mind to it.
The formal operations is the final stage which depicts children as beings able to relate very well and have the clear indication of things that happen or are to happen. This however also means that the child creates a sought of feeling of superiority to most people at times thinking that maybe he/she is at the peak and above the rest which is not the case. Vygotsky based his theory on the society’s role in developing the child. The child first grows then is able to relate with other people at large. With the help of an adult the child is able to grow and learn for example using rhymes or by certain movements such as tapping.
John Bowlby came with the attachment theory but Mary Ainsworth improved it. It clearly depicts that the strong ties or bonds between a child and a guardian, a child and a parent, a child and the one looking after the child helps with the growth of the child. Eric Erickson developed a theory to the aspect of child development too. (Demick & Andreoletti, pg 82, 2014) This include trust vs. mistrust (infant),Autonomy vs. shame (toddlerhood),Initiative vs. guilt (preschooler),Industry vs. inferiority (young adolescent),Identity vs. role confusion (adolescent),Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood), Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood),Ego integrity vs. despair (old age).
Other theories include behavioral theory as well as the psychosexual theory .The stages needed to be fully complete for the preceding one to take course basing it also on the libido in a particular place or different places. (Demick & Andreoletti, pg 85, 2014) The theory has similarities with Bowlby’s theory of attachment and the study of motor development .It helps to relate developments together and to create assertiveness and perception to things.
A different theory known as the “core knowledge perspective” is based on certain domains very important to development which include; physical ,linguistic, numerical, psychological and biological. The main cause of growth is mainly genetic or as a result of the immediate environment. Genetic factors have a great influence on the cell, the diet required, development of the brain too and its growth basically. Certain experiments show that organisms are able to survive with a small change in the environment too or when exposed to environments of slight variation.
However the environment still serves as a factor of development, sometimes both genetic and environmental factors both cause developmental changes .When the rate of genetic factors on the child is high this means that the rate of environmental factors is very low.(Crowley, 2014, pg 114). Physical growth is mainly change in stature over time and this includes the size, weight and physique or stature. This is accompanied with the change in structure such as of the limbs, as a child one has small limbs but as one matures into an adult the limbs become even bigger.
The child shows growth from the head up to the toe with development of vital organs too in the body. The child at first grows fast then progressively and much slower later on. Nutrition ,dieting ,diseases, injuries and exposition to certain things play an important role in the general development. .(Crowley, 2014, pg 114) Variations created later could be as a result of the environment or the genes of the parents and sometimes differences created as a result of different reproductive maturation.
Movement too is a factor of development with the child developing from single steps to continuous and progressive much more conducive steps. This also has an effect on the final posture what is known as motor development. Continuous and vigorous exercise also determines the posture and the ability to move oneself. Children with developed complications may find it very hard to develop and may develop complications. .(Crowley, 2014, pg 115)
This includes sitting, talking or even walking. Development may also vary due to individual differences such as a boy and a girl or even of the left foot and hand as well as the right hand and foot. A child should also be able to develop intellectually and grow certain cognitive abilities .However this depends on certain factors including nutrition, exercise and the parents’ response to the child.
A child first develops response to time and sequence and these increases with the continuing years. This ability was built on successive years checking keenly on their speed and pattern. This is however affected by an individual being left behind or choosing to, this happens in the case of boys and girls. Newborns also tend to create a liking which later changes and they later become weak and scared of people and certain things.
As the child grows he/she becomes friendly and is able to pick out her friends as well as developing feelings attached to people warding off anger or resentment. The more the child tends to relate with the parents certain aspects of social and emotional development are also seen to grow and build. Boys acquire certain behaviors while girls also acquire certain behaviors with differences in their character. (Charlesworth, 2016, pg 20)
Language serves a very important role in development .The components of early childhood development are phonology which leans more on the sounds of language, lexicon, morphology which entails looking deeply into the forms and pragmatics .Infants usually at first have soft vowels and develop cooing and then babbling comes in next ushering repetition of sounds.
(Charlesworth, 2016, pg 22) At 6 months the child is able to understand other’s speech and build on it up to age six as well as acquire mastery of speech and pronunciation .This ensures full participation of the child and exchange based on language .Theories of language development include the bootstrapping theory which bases it theory on the child’s ability to pick out meaning .
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The multi-route model believes in the parent’s ability to influence strongly the speech of the child. Children’s language depends on the attachment of words also known as semantics. .However speech is an important form of development. Delays may lead to serious consequences on the child’s side and the parent therefore should keenly monitor the child’s speech .
There are many causes to this and could be either environmental such as the concentration on other development milestones and stages whereby a child focuses on standing or even walking and neglects even talking. Dire causes could be as a result of neurological causes, for example, deafness, dyslexia and autism. (Brainerd & Pressley, 2012, pg 115) Factors that may pose a risk to the child’s development are either environmental or hereditary.
Environmental factors include those of the prenatal and post natal environment. Prenatal factors are those factors during pregnancy they include nutritional deficiencies, use of drugs, state of the uterus, exposure to radiation, infections, placental implantation. The post natal factors include the external environment, hormones influence, family, nutrition of the child. However malnutrition, maternal depression and substance abuse remain the common factors.
Other factors include post natal depression, socioeconomic status, parasites and poisoning. Abuse of substance also has a great effect, for example, cocaine which leads to poor development of the child especially the mental development altering with the brain functioning. (Feldman, 2012, pg 56) Children who face malnutrition weigh lesser in terms of kilograms and are most times shorter in length .It is also believed that malnutrition poses a danger to one’s intelligence quotient.
Certain ions also serve as important functions to the body and it is therefore important that one observes proper nutrition of a child. The socioeconomic status is based on income, academic or educational achievements and work. Poverty is seen to affect so many children in the case of malnutrition and development also due to nutrition. The parents academic achievement may have an effect on the child’s too ,that is how he/she is to perform. This children are affected in class and perceived by many as daft and left behind by teachers.
Some parasites also result into greater effects preventing the development of most children .Obesity still remains a common problem to all with most children not following a proper diet as a result of exposure and sometimes the parents or themselves. Some factors also popular include abuse which could be physical .A child may also not reach his proper state of development due to non proper state of development due to no proper observance of the common factors as a result of not receiving care. (In Edelman, In Mandle & In Kudzma, 2014, pg 418)
A child who has been neglected is identifiable even by practitioners .The developmental delay may be as a result of many factors and can never easily be ruled out on nurturing .It could be as a result of genetic disorder, disease, physical, sexual or emotional abuse or even a mixture of them at times.
In conclusion, child development is a very important stage in the human cycle therefore it is necessary for all relevant parties involved in this process to take all due duty of care to ensure that the process is attained in the optimum possible favorable factors.
References
Brainerd, C. J., & Pressley, M. (2012). Verbal Processes in Children: Progress in Cognitive Development Research. New York, NY: Springer New York.
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Obesity Awareness Organizations
Obesity -connected conditions such as stroke, heart attack, type 2 diabetes to mention but few are known to be epidemic and is growing rapidly and directly impacts the lives of approximately thirty four point nine percent (34.9 or 78.6 million) of adults in the USA, (CDC, 2015). Although there has been increased and misinformation and facts about the disease, thus, the establishment of Save the Children and Healthy Kids as well as Healthy community were established to increase public awareness on obesity.
Symbolic interaction theory address this sociological problem by addressing the subjective meanings imposed to people. This theory suggests that people behave according to what the society believes and what is not objectively true. The fundamental aspects of the obesity such as race and gender are better understood using symbolic interactionist lens. These two organizations are working to increase awareness on health risks that are associated with the disease, while providing aid to the morbidly obese individuals and also provide information and resources on exercise, nutrition and counselling on how to seek medical recommendation associated obesity disorders (Jator, 2014).
Functionalist theory is mainly concerned with stability order in the society. For instance, Healthy Kids, Healthy communities is an organization established by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation which aims at preventing child hood obesity. The organization was launched in December 2007. This organization is helping approximately 49 communities in the USA. It helps eliminate the issue of eating disorders and obesity in the USA by advocating for changes to local policies; with the aim of establishing a safe environment, one that fosters healthy lifestyle.
This organization has established programs that lay special emphasis to communities who are at higher risk of developing obesity due to their ethnic group and geographical location of socio-economic impacts in the society (Healthy Kids Healthy Communities, 2015).
Since its establishment, the organizations have supported more than 85 policy changes that target the environment to support healthy living. Some of the efforts have mainly focused on encouraging healthy eating and physical activeness. For instance, in Jafferson County, Ala, the organization advocated for changes to promote healthy eating and physical activity in 360 child care centres that were previously been exempted from these regulations by the local government because they were faith based organization (Healthy Kids Healthy Communities, 2015).
Conflict theory focuses mainly on the causes and consequences of obesity. This theory’s social constructs function based on what people perceive as true about what certain people look like. These constructs are used by these agencies to decide whom they should help and how to do so. According to this perspective, establishing a social structure will help eradicate obesity in America. Looking at the existing social arrangements, they tend to evaluate on what functions it performs to the society (Leon-Guerrero, 2011).
In silver City, N.M., the organization advocated for policy change to new policy that would allow community garden in each land-use zone. The changes also included the complete street policies which aimed at directing officials to design and maintain environments that are safe and accessible by bicyclists, walkers, and the transit users.
Other solutions that have been advocated for by this organization includes partnering with the local government to establish policies that improves access to healthy food, advocate for employee wellness and construction of safe environment that promote physical activeness in both adults and children (Healthy Kids Healthy Communities, 2015).
Critical theory critiques the society aspects with the aim of understanding and explaining the aspects of obesity. It digs beneath the surface of the social life so as to unveil the assumptions and misconceptions of obesity in the society. Social interactionist mainly focuses in micro-sociological interactions between the small groups in the society. The latent function in this case is to investigate the relationship between poverty, women empowerment, and obesity (Leon-Guerrero, 2011).
For instance, Save the Children organization was established in 1919 which aimed at fighting for children rights in order to save these children live and to give hope for better future. This program invests in childhood with the aim of giving them a healthy start across the world. The organization believes that by giving the children a healthy start; they provide them with an opportunity to learn, which offers a prospect to transform their course in the future.
One in five kids in the America lives in poverty. This organization have education and health programs to ensure that these children can access simple things that are critical including things such as books, pre-school educative programs, and healthy places where they can exercise and play. These simple things are crucial in order to help the kids thrive in mind and body (Save the Children, 2015).
The feminist perspective to tackle the obesogenic environments is inspired by the interest to help the poor minority, especially women and children from these communities (Leon-Guerrero, 2011). Save the Children program has established a program to fight obesity based on the feminist perspectives. The organization program is dubbed as “Hunger in America” is ironical. How can an advanced country be malnourished and obese at the same time?
When children live in poverty, they live in society and families that are struggling between making a healthy choice (implying no food at all) and putting cheaper but unhealthy food on the table. Consequently, more than half of these kids living in poverty stricken areas end up becoming obese or overweight. According to this organization’s report, 59% of the children are not able to access fresh healthy foods and in some areas, the statistics is as high as 98% (Save the Children, 2015).
Evidently, it is every person’s right to have a healthy live, and that each child deserves an opportunity to have a healthy start. Functionalist theory focuses more in the consequences than the intent. This is challenging as sometimes latent functions consequences are not usually so obvious. Therefore, it is imported for the Nation to get concerned on how the social arrangements benefits get distributed
(Conflict theory). This includes focusing on who benefits, wins or loses from specific social arrangement. This is important in that the society is constantly changing and conflict of these dynamic social arrangements are the main source of change. It is important to expose children and adults to healthier ways of living by promoting nutrition lessons and support to ensure that the balanced food choices are available to each member in the community, and to ensure that the community members remain physically active (Leon-Guerrero, 2011)
Jator, E. (2014). Predicting Obesity among Adolescents in the United States Using Modified Logistic Model. AJPHR, 2(3), 86-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.12691/ajphr-2-3-4
Leon-Guerrero, A. (2011). Social problems: community, policy and social action (Third ed). Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press.
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Abstract
This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.
The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report
Introduction
The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.
On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).
ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).
EITI Background
In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard. As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.
In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.
The EITI Principles
According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).
The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.
EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).
Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations
The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:
Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
Strengthening public institutions.
Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.
The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).
The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting
As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include: the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).
The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).
This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.
Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.
Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society
The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).
These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:
Identification
The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.
Agenda Setting
The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.
Public Education and Enlightenment
The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).
Agents of Social Mobilization and Change
The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.
Monitoring and Oversight
It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).
Advisory
Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.
Whistle Blowing
The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).
Observation
The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013). In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.
Feedback
The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.
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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases
It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.
In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.
This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.
For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).
Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies
In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.
The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.
This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.
The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.
Discussion of Results
It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010). The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).
Recommendation
Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).
Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.
Conclusion
In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard. As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.
As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.
The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.
References
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Koch, L. C., Niesz, T., & McCarthy, H. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytical Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 57(3), 131-143.
Lehrer, M., & Delaunay, C. (2009). Multinational Enterprises and the Promotion of Civil Society: The Challenge for 21st Century Capitalism. California Management Review, 51(4), 126-147.
Magner, A. L. (2015). Drilling for Disclosure: Resource Extraction Issuer Disclosure and American Petroleum Institute v. SEC. Journal of Corporation Law, 40(2), 521-537.
Mejía Acosta, A. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Accountability and Transparency Initiatives: The Governance of Natural Resources. Development Policy Review, 31s89-s105. doi:10.1111/dpr.12021
Mouan, L. C. (2010). Exploring the potential benefits of Asian participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The case of China. Business Strategy & the Environment (John Wiley & Sons, Inc), 19(6), 367-376. doi:10.1002/bse.687
Murphy, E. M. (2012). Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers. Federal Register, 77(177), 56365-56419.
Nurse, C. (2007). Transparency in resource extraction. Accountancy, 139(1366), 38-39.
Pal, N., & Pantaleo, D. C. (2008). From Strategy to Execution: Turning Accelerated Global Change into Opportunity. Berlin: Springer.
PR, N. (2013, August 29). Caracal Energy Inc. – Caracal Listed as a Supporting Company of the EITI. PR Newswire UK Disclose.
Salazar, K. (2012). Establishment of the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee and Request for Nominees. Federal Register, 77(145), 44263-44264.
Schuler, D. A. (2012). A club theory approach to voluntary social programs: Multinational companies and the extractive industries transparency initiative. Business & Politics, 14(3), 1-24. doi:10.1515/bap-2012-0024
Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2009). Dilemmas and further debates in qualitative method. Education for Information, 27(1), 21-37.
Sovacool, B. K., & Andrews, N. (2015). Does transparency matter? Evaluating the governance impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia. Resources Policy, 45183-192. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.04.003
Topal, J., & Toledano, P. (2013). Why the Extractive Industry Should Support Mandatory Transparency: A Shared Value Approach. Business & Society Review (00453609), 118(3), 271-298. doi:10.1111/basr.12011
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Abstract
This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.
The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report
Introduction
The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.
On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).
ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).
EITI Background
In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard. As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.
In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.
The EITI Principles
According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).
The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.
EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).
Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations
The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:
Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
Strengthening public institutions.
Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.
The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).
The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting
As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include: the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).
The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).
This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.
Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.
Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society
The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).
These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:
Identification
The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.
Agenda Setting
The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.
Public Education and Enlightenment
The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).
Agents of Social Mobilization and Change
The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.
Monitoring and Oversight
It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).
Advisory
Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.
Whistle Blowing
The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).
Observation
The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013). In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.
Feedback
The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.
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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases
It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.
In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.
This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.
For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).
Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies
In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.
The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.
This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.
The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.
Discussion of Results
It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010). The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).
Recommendation
Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).
Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.
Conclusion
In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard. As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.
As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.
The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.
References
Aaronson, S. A. (2011). Limited partnership: Business, government, civil society, and the public in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Public Administration & Development, 31(1), 50-63. doi:10.1002/pad.588
Calland, R., & Bentley, K. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Transparency and Accountability Initiatives: Freedom of Information. Development Policy Review, 31s69-s87. doi:10.1111/dpr.12020
Carbonnier, G., Brugger, F., & Krause, J. (2011). Global and Local Policy Responses to the Resource Trap. Global Governance, 17(2), 247-264.
Caspary, G. (2012). Practical Steps to Help Countries Overcome the Resource Curse: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Global Governance, 18(2), 171-184.
Disclosure as Governance: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and Resource Management in the Developing World. (2010). Global Environmental Politics, 10(3), 53-73.
Eigen, P. (2013). International Corruption: Organized Civil Society for Better Global Governance. Social Research, 80(4), 1287-1308.
Frynas, J. (2010). Corporate Social Responsibility and Societal Governance: Lessons from Transparency in the Oil and Gas SeWhat is Globalization? Journal of Business Ethics, 93163-179. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0559-1
Holden, W. N., & Jacobson, R. D. (2007). Mining amid armed conflict: nonferrous metals mining in the Philippines. Canadian Geographer, 51(4), 475-500. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2007.00193.x
Koch, L. C., Niesz, T., & McCarthy, H. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytical Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 57(3), 131-143.
Lehrer, M., & Delaunay, C. (2009). Multinational Enterprises and the Promotion of Civil Society: The Challenge for 21st Century Capitalism. California Management Review, 51(4), 126-147.
Magner, A. L. (2015). Drilling for Disclosure: Resource Extraction Issuer Disclosure and American Petroleum Institute v. SEC. Journal of Corporation Law, 40(2), 521-537.
Mejía Acosta, A. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Accountability and Transparency Initiatives: The Governance of Natural Resources. Development Policy Review, 31s89-s105. doi:10.1111/dpr.12021
Mouan, L. C. (2010). Exploring the potential benefits of Asian participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The case of China. Business Strategy & the Environment (John Wiley & Sons, Inc), 19(6), 367-376. doi:10.1002/bse.687
Murphy, E. M. (2012). Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers. Federal Register, 77(177), 56365-56419.
Nurse, C. (2007). Transparency in resource extraction. Accountancy, 139(1366), 38-39.
Pal, N., & Pantaleo, D. C. (2008). From Strategy to Execution: Turning Accelerated Global Change into Opportunity. Berlin: Springer.
PR, N. (2013, August 29). Caracal Energy Inc. – Caracal Listed as a Supporting Company of the EITI. PR Newswire UK Disclose.
Salazar, K. (2012). Establishment of the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee and Request for Nominees. Federal Register, 77(145), 44263-44264.
Schuler, D. A. (2012). A club theory approach to voluntary social programs: Multinational companies and the extractive industries transparency initiative. Business & Politics, 14(3), 1-24. doi:10.1515/bap-2012-0024
Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2009). Dilemmas and further debates in qualitative method. Education for Information, 27(1), 21-37.
Sovacool, B. K., & Andrews, N. (2015). Does transparency matter? Evaluating the governance impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia. Resources Policy, 45183-192. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.04.003
Topal, J., & Toledano, P. (2013). Why the Extractive Industry Should Support Mandatory Transparency: A Shared Value Approach. Business & Society Review (00453609), 118(3), 271-298. doi:10.1111/basr.12011
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Case Study: Human Dignity And Capital Punishment
Introduction
Case study 2 describes human capital punishment for two Australian Citizens caught smuggling Heroin to Indonesia. Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were executed after receiving death sentence from an Indonesian court.
Dignity refers to worth or value, therefore; human dignity refers to human worth and value. There are various approaches of human dignity which are classified by Kirchhoffer into two categories. Category 1 refers to the understanding of human dignity that is based in belief that human value is high because they are human or they possess certain capacities that are absent in other creatures. In Category 2, human dignity understanding is based on their belief that dignity is acquired or lost through the individual own feelings or specific dignity bestowing behaviour (Dhai, 2013). This paper describes the dignity of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumaran in relation to their execution based on Kirchhoffer classification.
Human dignity claims are mainly used to support or oppose death penalty. It has been argued that some acts such as homicide, death penalty are justified based on retributive punishment framework. Retribution involves respect for human autonomy and the decisions people make. It is also argued that death penalty is effective as it allows the relatives and friends of the victims find closure, facilitate emotional healing as they carry on with their lives (Jones, 2012). However, is there a possibility that some victims are unfairly executed? The main issue of significance in this case study 2 is that human life is sacred. It has inalienable dignity. In this regard, this paper explores the concepts of human dignity. It aims at evaluating if human dignity lie in human life, in the capacity of the decisions made by human or in the societal judgement of their past behaviour (Roche, 2011).
Perspective 1A: “Human has Dignity Simply because they are Human Species”
According to this perspective, human life is sacred. Most of the religious arguments fall into this perspective because they believe that human beings were created in the image of God. Non-religious proponents argue that is natural to fight for survival of one’s species, thus; it human species have special value against any intrinsic value or instrumental values possessed by the other species. This indicates that human beings have inherent worth because they belong to human species (Rydberg & Pizarro, 2014).
Based on this perspective, the execution of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar in Indonesia devalued the aspects human dignity. This is because the value of human dignity is inherent is their lives and not their actions. According to religious arguments, people’s actions do not necessarily define their dignity. It is not what people do or fail to which gives them dignity. It is the purpose of God, creator of the heaven and earth. People’s action is shaped by circumstances they face (Zylberman, 2016).
Perspective IB “Human Beings have Inherent worth Due to their Distinctive and Special Abilities”
This perspective interrelates with perspective IA in that all human are equal and possess inherent dignity. This perspective argues that human dignity arises from the fact that they have special distinctive attributes and special abilities. This is supported by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that human beings value is intrinsic in all members of the society (Trojan & Salfati, 2010).
This implies that humans are to live a life as predefined by the societal morals and self-consciousness. This perspective is used to promulgate the aspect of moral values in the society, failure to which the person is punished according the punishment equivalent to the value violated. Similar to perspective IA, it argues that due to the high capacities and specific attributes possessed by human beings, then they can be rehabilitated through proper treatment and training. This perspective is supported by the case study as Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar has reformed completely; which indicates that their execution was unjustified (Muftic & Hunt, 2012).
2 A “dignity can be acquired or lost through sense of self-worth”
This perspective understands the concepts of human dignity as some type of pride in one self and conscious sense of an individual’s worth as human being, which enables them to live a meaningful life. The way a person view themselves impacts on their life experiences. People who lack self-worth tend to struggle to find happiness and success. This makes them engage in activities that deviate from the society norms, affecting their relationship with the other people. It leads to further misery and struggle. However, this does not reduce their human dignity because it is innate (Kirchengast, 2010).
This implies that it was important for the Indonesian society to challenge their thinking. For example, what criteria were it used to reach to an agreement that Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were harmful people in the society? Did they have evidence on their past actions that indicated that they are extremely violent and threat to the society? The negative attitude accorded to these Australian citizens did not make sense because their verdict was made with an assumption that these individuals cannot transform, and that they will always be in their worst behaviours which is erroneous (McCormick, 2015).
2B “Dignity can be acquired or lost through Moral or Immoral Behaviour.
This perspective focuses much on the way the society judge’s one based on their past behaviour and not by their self-worth. Some people are the society’s hero because they lived selfless lives and lived their lives in pursuit of high ideals and exemplary conduct. These include people such as Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Mother Teresa. Others may be judged as to have lost their dignity due to their violent criminal acts (Cssidy, 2012). In this case Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were engaged in criminal activities of trafficking heroin. According to the Indonesian society, substance abuse is done by people who have an intent of becoming violent and harming others. The society has negative attitudes towards these two people as they perceive them as threat. For instance, the Indonesian government to surround Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar with military security style during transfer indicated that they perceived these people’s character as extremely dangerous which is not true (Kirchhoffer, 2011).
It can be argued that the death sentence is a form of punishment that removes bad/evil people in the society; which aims at increasing survival of good species; the outcomes of this practice are futile. An effective form of punishment should have a purpose to treat and restoration of the desired behaviour and not to kill. On the other hand, Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar determination to die with dignity so as to prevent their parent unnecessary distress indicates that they had gained sense of self-worth, and passionate enough to ensure that their relatives reach in closure and vindication (Mattson & Clark, 2011).
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Social Norms, Attitudes, and Other Circumstances Impact On the Aspects of Human Dignity
Proponents of death sentence argue that this practice protects the society from evil people, who inflict harm and distract the society harmony. According the social attitudes; it is the role of each and every government to protect its society from violent and heinous acts that would erode the society moral behaviour.
All people have the right to live in a safe environment, without the fear that their children will become drug addicts or die of addiction. Removing these people from the society is a measure to maintain public safety. Additionally, seeing people get executed, it deter other youths from practicing such acts (Ryan, 2016).
Additionally, the society ethics is embedded on the beliefs and ideas if what is wrong or right, good and bad. Human dignity is embedded in the social relationships satisfaction and attitudes held by the society. In addition, it is embedded on the patterns of behaviour that are believed by the society as they bring in harmony and cooperation, fairness and justice. The beliefs and ideas of human dignity are analysed, articulated and interpreted according to the moral thinkers of the society.
Most of the westernized society are characterised by organized functioning human communities. The ethical systems have undoubtedly evolved their values, values and principles that regulate human behaviour (Kirchhoffer & Dierickx, 2011). Based on the Indonesian society values and believes, then Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar punishment was justified.
The main argument for the ruling by the Indonesian court is that it aimed at deterring such actions from happening again. In my perspective, death penalty does not seem to deter people from committing violent crimes. It only deters the likelihood of other criminals being caught and punished. There lacks a scientific proof that the death penalty resulted to greater deterrent effect than other forms of punishment (Kirchhoffer & Dierickx, 2012).
Therefore, the execution of these two prisoners was harsh punishment on the individuals but not on crime. The impact underlying societal expectation and values cannot be overlooked. This has resulted in education frameworks that ignore the fundamental values of human dignity but focuses more on wealth acquisition. For this reason, the society has failed to value life and to cherish human beings above their possessions, power, desires and pleasures (Wierenga, 2011).
Human Dignity is Multidimensional
Humans possess multidimensional qualities including the emotional, physical, social, spiritual, symbolic and interpersonal qualities. According to Macquarrie, humanity is unfinished product that is moving into possibilities that are still unfolded. Therefore, during these developments and concepts, human dignity concepts tend to conflict each other. Human dignity is multidimensional. It can be described in four different ways, which sometimes they conflict to one another. Human dignity is something that human already have and also something that they strive to acquire (Lee, 2014).
Based on International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), all people that have limited liberty must be treated with liberty and respect (1 A). This affirms the argument in that dignity lie in human. This ideology acknowledges the complexity of being human and the multidimensional aspects involved. Therefore, human beings are not to be reduced to one type of level of functioning (Vanhaelemeesch & Vander Beken, 2014).
Where a deviation occurs, it is important to understand that all humans are equal. It is important to also acknowledge that dignity as an aspect that can be acquired or lost through sense of self-worth (2A). Therefore, it is likely that Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar past actions were due to loss of self-worth, but through rehabilitative processes, their self-worth would have been restored. However, their loss of sense of dignity cannot be equated to their actual possession of dignity (Strelan & Prooijen, 2013).
The quadrant 1B argues that Human beings have inherent worth due to their distinctive and special abilities.Perspective 2B states that dignity can be acquired or lost through moral or immoral behaviour which according to my perspective, they do not support death penalty as human beings have unique capacity of being rehabilitated and become reformed. Therefore, it is rather obvious to state that if human life is complex than on single dimension, then it is unfair to just the person’s dignity based on one dimension. Although it is important to acknowledge that a person’s moral action indicates their dignity orientation, it is also important to recognize that there is chance for change, growth, compassion, forgiveness and reconciliation (Matthews, 2014).
Conclusion
The criminal justice system should maintain law and order in the society by punishing the offenders. However, harsh and unjustified punishments will not restore the victim’s behaviours. In my perspective, capital punishment must be eradicated and replaced with rehabilitative services that challenge, encourage and reward the offenders for their transformed attitudes and behaviours.
Most of the offenders engage in criminal activities to seek means of survival. Empowering them with skills will help them get employment, and live by example in the society. In this case, the execution of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar was unjustified as their human dignity was not protected. I believe these past experiences have facilitated change in such policies that devalue the dignity of human.
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