History Argumentative Essay

History Argumentative Essay
History Argumentative Essay

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History Argumentative Essay

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Write a 1500 word history argumentative essay term paper in which you develop a thesis and support it using historical evidence and cited sources.
You should use a minimum of three different sources: at least one must be a printed source (book, article, journal) and at least one must be from an online source.
Cite all of your sources using footnotes or endnotes according the Chicago Manual of Style format 
Choose ONE of the following topics below and right a 1500 word essay in which you support the position you adopt for or against one of the given propositions with historical evidence. Cite any quoted material using endnotes.

1. Religion was / was not a significant factor in the development of early world civilizations.
2. Trade was / was not a factor in generating cross-cultural contact between different civilizations.
3. Gender roles in early civilizations did / did not differ considerably from one society to another.
4. Settled agricultural societies were / were not superior to nomadic hunter-gatherer societies.

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History Argumentative Essay

History Argumentative: Gender roles in early civilizations did / did not differ considerably from one society to another.

Gender roles are a prime subject for discussion in the modern society. The variant beliefs and ideology holdings of various individuals, scholars and researchers serve for a lengthy and sometimes heated discussion about the modern role of gender. However, these types of discussion have abounded for a long time. The concepts about the different roles of men and women have been a critical difference among persons holding different ideologies for several centuries.

The notion of these differences has not only been variant among men and women but also between different societies. This paper seeks to determine whether there were major differences in the gender roles in early civilizations and whether these differences varied between various cultures and societies.

The meaning of gender roles

            While the sex of the individual is a biological phenomenon, gender is a social and cultural concept. Gender is, therefore, a social construction that seeks to differentiate the society by assigning behavior and expected attitudes towards certain issues and topics (Barkan and Hund 2015, 143 – 146 ). Therefore, the behavioral notion that implies the intrinsic differences in the manner in which men and women as well as boys and girls act is not because of biological inclinations but rather a societal shaping.

At birth, there are no predetermined gender roles (Barkan and Hund 2015, 144 – 145). Such roles develop as a result of the development and expectations learned from the society. Such lessons on the expectation of the society regarding gender roles begin early. Some early lessons such as some nursery rhymes have in them these lessons that teach the fundamental differences between male and female (2015, 145 – 146). Gender roles, therefore, are not as a result of the sex of the individual, but rather a conditioning by society to fit into the expected behavior and attitudes prescribed for a given gender.

Gender roles in the family unit

            The basic societal unit of the family is where most teaching stems from. In addition, the family is the smallest unit where gender roles and the associated societal begin to play out. The traditional understanding that women are more nurturing than men are predisposes them to behave in a given way in the family. The view of increased femininity by the women ascribes the society to place the role of bringing up the family to them (Blackstone 2013, 336 – 337 ). Such expectations traditionally held the women to believe that their only rational full-time employment venture was in the home taking care of the family.

            On the other hand, the male role in the family unit is one of leadership. Traditional societies viewed all male figures as being highly masculine and, therefore, assigned them roles based on physical, provisional, and permanent abilities required in such roles. These roles included the protection of the family, providing for all their financial and economic needs, provide guidance, and making the decisions for the family (Blackstone 2013, 336 – 337 ). In the early civilizations, such roles were handed out based on gender rather than on the ability of the individual.

Gender roles in leadership

            Traditionally, the role of leadership was predominantly oriented towards the male figures in the society. This stems from the view in most of the traditional societies that the male figure was responsible for making decisions. In this context, the males in the majority of the early civilizations engaged in politics and agriculture (Lalonde 2015). Both of these activities were held in high esteem since they reflected power and wealth. In addition, the majority of the rulers in ancient civilizations were male, as were the leaders of the military units in various societies. There are, however, cases of a number of women who were decorated heroes and leaders in a number of early civilizations.

Gender roles in communication and influence

            Enthusiastic communication and eloquence signify power, strength and leadership qualities of the individual. Given that most of the early civilizations and societies held such qualities as being manly and possessed by leaders, it was unusual to find an eloquent woman. As such, men in most of the early societies were nurtured to be good in communication and develop public confidence as part of their core skills (History World International 1992).

This societal and cultural development led to male dominance in areas that required good communication skills. This predisposition that favored the males in the society had a direct relationship on the influence held by such persons. As such, the influence held by men in such societies was much larger than the women, who were largely confined indoors….

History Argumentative Essay

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British Joint operations in the South

British Joint operations in the South
British Joint operations in the South

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British Joint operations in the South

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For your essay, please answer Question #8

“8. Why did British Joint operations in the South fail to win the war for Britain from 1778-1781?”

Read the question carefully and be sure you do NOT write a paper that explains why the Brits were initially operationally successful at Savannah and more notably, Charleston.

Assume the question acknowledges that they were Operationally successful, but rather is asking you to explain WHY the Operational outcomes/results did not yield STRATEGIC success (i.e. win the war).

As a reminder, these essays are designed to be Critical Analyses, and as such you should only base your arguments on the information that the leadership/decision makers at THAT TIME had available to them. There should not be any “Monday-Morning Quarterback” information presented.

MAXIMUM 5 pages of text essay (Times New Roman 12 pitch font, 1 inch margins, double-spaced, NOT including your Cover Page or any references) and it will count as 30% of your overall S&W grade. Do not exceed 5 pages of text, not including the cover page, in an MS WORD format and please utilize the cover page format (cut/paste to make it easy) included on your disk.

Be sure your essay meets all of the requirements outlined in Annex A, especially those listed below, and I encourage all students to have someone completely unfamiliar with the essay/materials proof-read the essay prior to submittal to make sure your essay/argument makes sense and is influential/effective.

British Joint operations in the South

1. The Thesis paragraph “answers” the questions assigned. There should be no doubt in your readers’ minds exactly how you have chosen to answer the assigned question. 

2. The Main Body of your essay develops your thesis paragraph in a logical and easy to follow manner and includes supporting information/facts/figures/ statements from the syllabus source materials.

3. The essay contains a Counterargument in which you examine a feasible viewpoint that is different than one/more of those you present in your thesis.

4. The essay contains a Rebuttal in which you convincingly disavow the idea/opinion presented in your counterargument and further support one/more of your ideas contained in your thesis.

5. The essay contains the correct formatting as indicated Annex A and the Writing Guide (cover page, page numbering, citations, margins, etc).

British Joint operations in the South

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British Joint operations in the South

Poor strategic decisions and overreliance on injudicious assessments led to the failure of British Joint Operations in the South, thus leading to failure to win the war. During this period, the British government pegged their strategy on the loyalists, believing that they were the strongest and that the Southern colonies held a significant number of them. Accordingly, they focused their energy to the South. However, this strategy proved futile and led to British’s dismal failure as various challenges presented themselves ranging from lack of support to logistical issues.

The Loyalists were not as many as initially thought and with time could not be controlled by the British commanders as the operation eventually turned into a civil war between Loyalist forces and rebel partisan units. The Loyalists, who were expected to salvage the situation not only proved unreliable but also failed at controlling the countryside (Midgley, p. 139). In addition, Britain lacked adequate resources to deal with the civil war that emanated, thus leading to ultimate defeat. 

With increased resource depletion due to the expanded war, the British economy was becoming a major cause of concern, given the increasing resource strain as the empire sought to address the numerous threats facing it. The ever increasing pressure from the war presented one viable option for the British: to increase the army and navy size. Even then, this meant that Britain had to raise taxes in order to support this implementation, an option that was becoming less popular in the parliament due to the declining economic position (Midgley, p. 140).

Accordingly, the British needed to develop a new tactic to protect the empire’s colonies. In this relation, the West Indies colonies which were considered more valuable to Britain due to their economic value, given the large amounts of imports in the form of sugar and rum that benefited Britain to a significant extent (Learn NC, P. 2). It is this consideration that drove the British government to continue with the American war, but this time with a resolve to change tactic.

During the period between 1778 and 1781, Britain changed tactic by focusing their efforts from the middle colonies to the Sothern colonies in the belief that they had greater chances of winning. This would be achieved through relying on the untapped military strength which they believed lied with the Loyalists (Midgley, p. 139). There were four main reasons for the focus on the Southern colonies from the Northern and middle colonies. The first reason was that the Southern colonies were seen as a means to promote positive gains on war, following Britain’s defeat at Saratoga.

The second consideration is that the Southern colonies were closer to Britain geographically compared to Caribbean colonies. This meant that the coordination of the British army would be easier and that the empire would save on military resources which were highly strained. The third consideration was the clear impossibility of a decisive victory, such that Britain was now focusing on a negotiated settlement. Having lost after Saratoga,

Britain considered the Southern colonies comparatively untouched by war and given the less coverage of American forces in the South, the British could be in a better bargaining position if negotiation became preferred. The last consideration is that the Southern colonies contained more Loyalists, who were expected to provide military support and thus reduce the manpower required in executing the war. This was known as Americanizing the war and that with tactical implementation, only a small British force would be required to win the war.

In essence, the campaign was dependent on Loyalist support and the British government envisioned a situation where the Loyalists would provide manpower and take up military roles. This is considered the major undoing of the British – over-relying on the Loyalists for the success of their campaign…..

British Joint operations in the South

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How industrial revolution affected women in minorities in the 19th century

How industrial revolution affected women in minorities in the 19th century
How industrial revolution affected women in minorities in the 19th century

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How industrial revolution affected women in minorities in the 19th century

Analyze how the industrial revolution affected women in minorities in the 19th century.

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How industrial revolution affected women in minorities in the 19th century

The industrial revolution epitomizes an era in which women empowerment gained prominence, as women became educated and increasingly participated in the workforce. Women could now be employed, develop their skills and cater for their families unlike before when they had to depend on men or work at home.

As the world moved towards factory manufacturing, more women had the opportunity to work outside their home and also get professional education. The 19th century is also considered a notable period in relation to early feminism. Minority women however did not benefit from women empowerment until later in the industrial revolution.

Guy-Sheftall (2011) notes, that minorities and particularly women were overlooked in the 19th century’s democracy expansion. While the whites, also known as the majority had better opportunities for education and participation in the workforce, minority women were often sidelined in such developments. The 19th century was characterized by the fight for women rights, mostly the right for equal recognition under the law and right to vote. Previously, women were expected to be homebound and thus take care of domestic jobs such as cleaning, cooking and child-bearing and would not be allowed to socialize.

This meant that women did not have an opportunity to work or get an education. As more women participated in the workforce, they also sought to be freed from domestic labor. This was achieved through employing other women of lower class in their homes, consequently increasing the level of slavery among women minorities (Auguste, 2018). More domestic servants were needed to work in middleclass homes and this was mostly given to minority women.

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Europe on the Eve of World War 1

Europe on the Eve of World War 1
Europe on the Eve of World War 1

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Europe on the Eve of World War 1

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Week 1
Europe on the Eve of World War 1

There is a fairly common view of Europe as a “powder keg” on the eve of World War I, to which the assassination of the Grand Duke Ferdinand in Sarajevo merely provided a “spark.” Professor Merriman veers toward this point of view. For this first week’s discussion I would like you to take the role of an American diplomat who resides in the capital city of one of Europe’s great powers (London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Rome, or St. Petersburg) who is called upon to report on the situation there in May 1914. What issues are stoking fears of war and what factors are pointing toward preservation of peace? Please do not jump ahead to the Summer of 1914.

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Europe on the Eve of World War 1 Essay

The current situation reflects a world in which the desire for power is overwhelmingly discernible. Residents in Austria are worried about what could happen and many speculations linger regarding a potential war. Issues stocking fears of war include the current political atmosphere, given Europe’s willingness to defend its national interests even if it means going to war and the issue of balance of power in Europe. This can be explained by imperialism which has affected Europe’s balance of power and thus impacted on the system rendering it unworkable (Martin, 2017).

This means that in pursuit of power, competition is apparent and this could be a sign of a pending war. There exists a security dilemma in which nations must be prepared for war just in case it happens (Schroeder, 2000). With such kind of preparation characterized by the organization of troops, strategy development and investment in war weaponry, nations are effectively prepared to handle war and therefore more likely to engage in war unlike if they were not prepared. The existence of alliances is by far an indication that war is a possibility (Cornish, 2018).

It can be interpreted that each of the alliances is willing to protect its interests and that if this means war, this is what could result (Clark, 2013).  Territorial differences that were unresolved also present possibilities of war as each territory seeks to protect its interests. The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary for example led to the creation of tension between Europe and Germany, following Germany’s development of a battle fleet that led to some kind of competition in naval arms development (Imperial War Museums, 2018).

Such relationship strains present vulnerabilities that may result in war if they are further provoked. Another example is the strain between Austria and Serbia, with Serbia being considered a threat to Austria in terms of multi-ethnic empire stability…..

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The Pacific War

The Pacific War
The Pacific War

The Pacific War

For your Module III essay please answer the following question:

“8. Evaluate the alternative strategic courses of action open to the United States for terminating the Pacific War. Was there any better course of action to follow other than the one actually executed?”

Three pieces of advice:

1. The question is asking you to evaluate the strategic options available to the U.S., specifically with regard to how to terminate the conflict once Germany surrendered in May 1945. So be sure to provide thorough evaluations of at least two alternative strategic courses of action, and identify if you believe any of these alternatives would have been “better” than the strategy the US actually used.

2. Remember that strategies should be designed to achieve desired Policy Goals.

3. As a reminder, these essays are designed to be Critical Analyses, and as such you should only base your arguments on the information that the leadership/decision makers at THAT TIME had available to them. There should not be any “Monday-Morning Quarterback” information presented that has only been revealed/derived after the conflict ended.

In addition to the formatting and writing style information contained in Annex A, I have again attached a copy of the Writing Guide here because it is imperative that you read through it carefully and reference it during all stages of your essay development.

Be sure your essay meets all of the requirements outlined in Annex A and the Writing Guide, especially those listed below, and addresses any formatting and organizational detractors found in your Module II essay.

I also encourage all students to have someone completely unfamiliar with the essay/materials proofread the essay prior to submittal to make sure their essay/argument makes sense and is influential/effective.

1. The Thesis Paragraph “answers” the questions assigned. There should be no doubt in your readers’ minds exactly how you have chosen to answer the assigned question.

2. The Main Body of your essay develops your thesis paragraph in a logical and easy to follow manner and includes supporting information/facts/figures/ statements from the syllabus source materials.

3. The essay contains a Counter Argument in which you examine a feasible opinion/idea that is different than one or more of the ideas you present in your thesis.

4. The essay contains a Rebuttal in which you convincingly disavow the idea/opinion presented in your counterargument and further support one/more of your ideas contained in your thesis.

5. The essay contains the correct formatting as indicated in the Writing Guide/Annex A (cover page, page numbering, citations, margins, etc).

The Pacific War

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The Kulak Operation History Paper

The Kulak Operation
The Kulak Operation

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The Kulak Operation

ORDER INSTRUCTIONS

Please read J. Arch Getty’s article, “‘Excesses are not permitted:’ Mass Terror and Stalinist Governance in the Late 1930s,”(Russian Review, January 2002, Vol. 61 Issue 1, pp. 113-138 – available via UMUC library resources) .

Getty is among the so-called “revisionist” historians who downplay Stalin’s personal role in the conduct of the Terror.

In a 4-5 page paper, please explain what was the “kulak operation” and evaluate how Getty characterizes Stalin’s impact on this operation.

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Other Instructions:
Citations of sources for quotations and borrowed ideas in your text should be indicated using endnotes in Chicago Manual-style. 

All of the page number instructions assume an 8.5″ by 11″ page, 1″ margins, double-spaced text, and 12-point font.

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Slavery during the constitutional convention History Admission Essay

the constitutional convention
the constitutional convention

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Slavery during the constitutional convention History Essay Admission Essay

INSTRUCTIONS:

How did the question of slavery emerge as a national issue by the time of the Revolution and the Constitutional Convention. Ultimately, how did the Constitution deal with the question of slavery? Do you find this to be an effective solution? Why/why not?

The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia met between May and September of 1787 to address the problems of the weak central government that existed under the Articles of Confederation. The United States Constitution that emerged from the convention established a federal government with more specific powers, including those related to conducting relations with foreign governments.

Under the reformed federal system, many of the responsibilities for foreign affairs fell under the authority of an executive branch, although important powers, such as treaty ratification, remained the responsibility of the legislative branch. After the necessary number of state ratifications, the Constitution came into effect in 1789 and has served as the basis of the United States Government ever since.

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World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare
World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

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World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

World War 1 (WW1) is fundamentally similar to warfare as it is practiced today

The year 1914 witnessed the class of large armies that were armed with deadly new weaponry and military hardware which had been developed all through the 2nd industrial revolution of the late nineteenth century. Chief among these new weapons was the quick-firing artillery that was able to deluge enemy fighters with hails of lethal lead balls that cascaded from shrapnel shells. In the meantime, the bullets that were fired by machine guns and rifles had actually gained in accurateness and range and were able to cause terrible wounds. World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare.

By the ending of the 1914, over 1 million European combatants had been killed. The armies were compelled to seek the relative safety of dugouts and trenches: a novel form of combat was born.[1] This argumentative essay supports the argument that the First World War is fundamentally similar to how warfare is currently being practiced.

The First World War introduced a number of advancements in science and technology into modern warfare as it is currently being practiced nowadays. These advancements transformed the nature of warfare including combat tactics and strategies. It is notable that on both sides, inventors and scientists worked all through the war to improve their technology so as to give their side an advantage during the battle.[2]

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

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The initial years of WW1 could be described as a class of twentieth-century technology with nineteenth-century warfare in the form of ineffective combats that resulted in many casualties on both sides. In essence, it was really not until 1918, WW1’s concluding year, that the main armed forces started to make effective steps in transforming matters of tactics, control and command to adapt to the modern combat zone, and began harnessing the many new technologies to effectual military purposes.

Tactical organizations for instance changing the focus of command from one-hundred-man company to the ten-man squad went hand-in-hand with the first submachine guns, armoured vehicles, as well as automatic rifles which could be carried and utilized by a single soldier.[3] Likewise, in warfare as practiced today, major armies particularly the Allied forces including Americans, the French, Australians and the Brits have effectively harnessed a number of novel technologies to effective military purposes for instance the utilization of unmanned drones to spy on their enemies and even for dropping bombs on enemy targets.

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

Tanks: tanks, which were highly armoured vehicles, were initially introduced during the First World War and were utilized in crossing No Man’s Land between trenches. Tanks had mounted cannon and machine guns.[4] Even though the first tanks were difficult to steer and were not dependable, they in fact became more effectual and efficient by the conclusion of WW1, and are highly advanced as used in warfare today.

War in the air: WW1 was actually the very first warfare in the history of wars in which airplanes were employed. At first, airplanes were utilized in observing the troops of the enemy. Nonetheless, by the ending of the warfare, airplanes were utilized in dropping bombs in enemy cities and on the enemy troops. In addition, airplanes were mounted with machine guns which were utilized in shooting down other airplanes.[5]

Changes in naval warfare: during the First World War, the most dangerous ships were referred to as dreadnoughts – they were basically big metal armoured warships. The dreadnoughts had long-range guns which were powerful that allowed these ships to attack other battleships as well as targets on land from a long distance. During this war, the main naval fighting was the essentially the Battle of Jutland.

Other than this fighting, naval battleships of the allied forces were utilized in blockading Germany to stop food and other supplies from reaching the nation. Moreover, at sea, submarines were used in attacking ships.[6] Battleships became more powerful and quicker than ever before and utilized newly invented radios in communicating effectively.

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Trench warfare: it is worth mentioning that much of the battle along the western front was fought with the use of trench warfare in which both sides of the combat dug extensive lines of trenches which helped in protecting the soldiers from artillery and gunfire. No Man’s Land was the term used in referring to the region between enemy trenches. For a number of years, trench warfare resulted in a stalemate between both sides. Both sides lost millions of fighters but neither side gained ground.[7] The popular image of WW1 is combatants in muddy dugouts and trenches living despondently until the subsequent assault.

New weapons: some of the new weapons included machine guns, artilleries, chemical weapons and flamethrowers. During WW1, the machine gun was improved considerably. The machine gun was made easier to move around and much lighter. Big guns commonly referred to as artilleries were improved throughout this battle including anti-airplane guns which were aimed at shooting down airplanes of the enemy. Most of the casualties during this battle were inflicted with the use of artillery and some big artillery guns were actually used in launching shells roughly eighty miles[8].

Moreover, WW1 introduced chemical weapons to the war. Chlorine gas was initially used by Germany for the purpose of poisoning unsuspecting troops of the Allied forces. Afterwards, mustard gas, which was more deadly, was developed and utilized by both the Allied forces and the German troops. By the ending of this warfare, troops on both sides of the conflict were equipped with gas masks and the chemical weapon actually became less effective.[9]    

The war came to an end on 11/11/1918, and modern war technology had altered the course of civilization. Millions of civilians and enemy soldiers had been starved, maimed, gassed or killed. Disease and famine continued raging through the central parts of Europe particularly in Germany and it took very many lives. Thanks to rapid advancements in technology in virtually every area, the nature of warfare had forever changed, affecting sailors, airmen, combatants and civilians similarly.

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

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WW1 is essentially the same as warfare as practiced at the moment considering that just like during the First World War, warfare today is characterized by the use of tanks, machine guns, artilleries, battleships, and even airplanes – technologies that were invented and first used during the First World War. For instance, in the modern warfare going on in North Africa and the Middle East in which the United States and its Allies are fighting against terrorist groups including Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, the use of machine guns, artilleries, cannons, and tanks are used extensively by both sides.

However, mechanized warfare, war airplane and tank technology initially developed in WW1 have become more and more sophisticated and fearsome military hardware in today’s warfare and have in fact made the trench outdated. 

In addition, just as warfare is being practiced at the moment, WW1was actually determined largely by fighting skills, tactics, industrial capacity and logistics. Also, major warfare today involves a number of different countries in different regions of the globe, and surveillance and communication are an essential aspect of warfare today.

Similarly, WW1 was the first main warfare which involved several countries in various parts of the globe and surveillance and communications were gradually more becoming a significant aspect of the fighting.[10] Equally important, the First World War was a combat of firsts – a multinational combat from traditional hand-to-hand fighting to high-tech, sophisticated military hardware – that is still the characteristic of armed combats today.

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

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Furthermore, the consequences of warfare as practiced today are more or less the same as the consequences of war during WW1. In today’s warfare just as in WW1 warfare, most of the enemy soldiers and civilians in the countries where the war is being waged end up getting starved, killed or maimed. Modern warfare waged in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, Syria and other places today have similarly caused significant famine.

Malnutrition and starvation continued taking the lives of children and adults in Germany for several years following the end of the First World War in 1918.[11] Likewise today, malnutrition and starvation have taken the lives of many children and adults in Libya, Syria, Yemen, and Iraq thanks to the warfare going on in these countries. Years after these fighting end, malnutrition and starvation are also likely to continue taking the lives of people in these places.   

Conclusion

To sum up, the First World War is fundamentally the same as how warfare is currently being practiced. Just like during WW1, in warfare today, major armies have properly harnessed a several new technologies to effective military purposes for example the usage of unmanned drones for dropping bombs on enemy targets and spying on enemies. Just like WW1, warfare as practiced these days involves several countries. Equally important, surveillance and communication are extensively utilized in today’s warfare just as how it was used during WW1.

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

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References  

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Knox, MacGregor, and Williamson Murray, eds. The Dynamics of Military Revolution, 1300-2050. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Paret, Peter, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy: from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.

Parker, Geoffrey, ed. The Cambridge History of Warfare. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Parker, Geoffrey, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.


[1] MacGregor Knox and Williamson Murray, eds. The Dynamics of Military Revolution, 1300-2050. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 43.

[2] Geoffrey Parker, ed. The Cambridge History of Warfare. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 17.

[4] Geoffrey Parker, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 22.

[7] Peter Paret, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy: from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 21.

[10] Carl von Clausewitz. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 11.

World War 1 (WW1) similarity to Warfare

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Stolen Egyptian Art Returned

Stolen Egyptian Art Returned
Stolen Egyptian Art Returned

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Stolen Egyptian Art Returned

Part 1

Charlton, A. (2011). France to return “stolen” Egyptian art after Louvre row. Huffington Post

This article reports on how the culture minister of France agreed to give back a total of 5 painted wall fragments to the North African nation of Egypt following a row regarding their ownership which prompted Egypt to cut links with France’s Louvre Museum. The painted wall fragments were initially obtained from a tomb aged about 3,200 years close to Luxor, the ancient temple city (Charlton, 2011).

Zahi Hawass, Egypt’s antiquities chief, severed links with Louvre Museum until this Museum returned those stolen artifacts as he had vowed to restore links only after the 5 artwork pieces were taken back to Egypt by the Museum. This was one of most insistent and hard line efforts by this Egyptian official aimed at reclaiming stolen Egyptian antiquities and bought by major museums across the globe (Charlton, 2011).

The 5 wall fragments had been stolen by thieves from the tomb and sold to Louvre Museum in 2000 and 2003. After ties were cut by Hawass, France’s minister of culture and Louvre Museum both agreed to take the artwork pieces back to Egypt. However, it is important to note that France’s Louvre Museum had acquired the art pieces in good faith and the decision to take them back was a reflection of the Museum’s and France’s commitment to firm action against unlawful trade of cultural goods (Charlton, 2011).

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Part 2

The returning of the pieces of fragments by Louvre Museum to Egypt is without doubt the ending of a chapter for those stolen Egyptian artifacts. Even so, this could as well be the start of several other restitution claims by other countries that have seen how Egypt was able to successfully get back its stolen artifacts from a leading museum in France (Bailey, 2011).

Art theft is a highly profitable crime. Even though comparatively few art thefts actually make headlines internationally, Interpol (2016) reported that every year, hundreds of thousands of art crimes are reported globally. It is notable that some art thefts are more prominent than other art thefts because of the motives behind the art theft, the immense size of the value, or because of how the theft occurred.

The illegal trading in artworks is sustained by the opening of international borders, the demand from the artworks market, the political instability of some nations, as well as the improvement in transportation systems (Interpol, 2016). 

The theft of significant pieces of art usually robs a social group, a family, a church or a country of invaluable piece of its cultural heritage. Nonetheless, stolen artwork has at all times been a big seller on the international black market – secretive and unlawful selling and trading of different goods. The trade of stolen artwork is a huge business which has in fact generated in excess of $1 billion annually in sales over the last decade (Interpol, 2016).

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Only an estimated fifteen percent of stolen artwork is ever recovered, usually very many years after its disappearance. Since the robbers, traders and buyers of the looted artwork usually cover their actions in great secrecy, it is often very hard for law enforcement agencies to recover looted art and restore them to their lawful owners. Difficulties in getting a stolen piece of art are made worse given that antiquities and arts can be easily smuggled across international borders.

Thanks to such transfers, tracking the transport is usually hard for law enforcement agencies. Cases of looted pieces of artwork usually drag on for long time periods, and in fact, 90% of all looted artwork cases remain unsolved because of the secrecy which cloaks trading of stolen art in the global artwork world (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2016).        

Returning a country’s stolen artwork or looted cultural heritage serves to promote goodwill with foreign citizens and governments, whilst safeguarding the world’s cultural heritage as well as knowledge of previous civilizations (Archaeological Institute of America, 2011). The crime of stealing and trafficking artworks and cultural heritage is essentially a practice that is as ancient as the cultures which they represent.

The only thing that has changed is the capacity of cultural pirates to get hold of valuable cultural property and art, transport and sell them stealthily, without difficulty and quickly (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2016). Art criminals operate on an international scale without any regard for nationalities, borders, laws or the worth of the treasures which they smuggle.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, the illegal trafficking of cultural heritage and artwork is a transnational crime and only an estimated 15% of the looted artwork is ever recovered and taken back to their rightful owners. Stolen cultural objects and artworks should be returned to their original countries since they are invaluable pieces of the country’s cultural heritage.

Taking them back will also help in promoting goodwill with foreign governments. When cultural property and artworks that are reported as stolen in other countries are brought into the United States unlawfully, they need to be seized according to the United States customs law.

References

Archaeological Institute of America. (2011). AIA joins the international coalition to protect Egyptian antiquities. AIA.

Bailey, M. (2011).  Egypt: Looting headaches for promoted Hawass. London, England: Umberto Allemandi & Co. Publishing.

Charlton, A. (2011). France to return “stolen” Egyptian art after Louvre row. TheWorldPost. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/10/09/france-to-return-stolen-e_n_315402.html

Interpol. (2016). Works of art. Retrieved from http://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Works-of-art/Works-of-art

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. (2016). Cultural property, art and antiquities investigations. Retrieved from https://www.ice.gov/cultural-art-investigations  

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