History – Page 2 – Best Essay Writers

TERRACOTTA ARMY OF QIN

Terracotta Army of Qin

Introduction

The Terracotta Army is a funerary art which portrays the armies of the first Chinese Emperor, Qin Shi Huang. In 1974, some Chinese peasants discovered an old pit that contained the clay warriors in Shaanxi Province, northwest of China ¹. They alerted the authority and excavation begun immediately. It is argued that the clay soldiers were modeled to protect the emperor in his afterlife ².

The more than 2200 years old models are considered by many historians to be a splendid archeological site in the world and have been defined as one of the greatest discoveries of the 20th century. The warriors were both beneficial and detrimental to the ancient Chinese social-political life, and it is easy to compare the cultural values of the Terracotta Army to other Chinese historical sites such as the Great Wall.

The figures depict the nature of the old Chinese government, people’s way of life, religion, their values and a true depiction of the real army of Chinese emperors of the third century BC. The statues were created under the supervision of the emperor who imposed harsh measures and suffering to the ordinary citizens. Despite the oppression faced by the Chinese of the time, the artists managed to create splendid sculptures that explain the creativity, skillful and effectiveness of common citizens of ancient China ³.

The Terracotta Army is neither an admiration of real soldiers that it tries so much to reflect, nor the authoritative nature of the tyrant who commissioned the creation of the clay soldiers, but rather a celebration of the poor artists who have managed to preserve ancient Chinese culture through the models.

Depiction of the Political Structure

The position of the clay soldiers explains the military organization of ancient Chinese army. Arguably, Emperor Qin organized his army in a manner illustrated by the clay soldier’s formation. Each of the clay soldiers has a unique facial expression and they are positioned according to rank ⁴. The soldiers have varying height conferring to their role in the army, with the tallest ones being the generals.

They were initially painted and armed, but with time most of these artistic depictions have been lost. Not only do they have varying heights and facial expressions, but also have different roles in the Qin’s army. The commanders are also distinct from the normal infantry, with unique uniforms and hairstyles ⁵. These soldiers are seen to be organized into three separate pits, with the largest being the main battle army.

This pit contains foot soldiers and horses, and it can be deducted that the ancient Chinese military at the time of Qin was structured in a similar way. The second pit is smaller from the first one, and is considered a flanking army; this is a military tactic where soldiers move around a flank to gain a better position against an enemy and presents an offensive power that can be concentrated in the army’s front ⁶. The Chinese flank army composed of archers and chariots, while the third pit represented the headquarters.

The Chinese people at the time appear to have possessed some of the best military technology of their time. The figures not only depict warriors but also chariots and horses; it is estimated that the sculptures contain 130 chariots, 150 cavalries and about 520 horses ⁷. The excavation of the pits has brought to light the presence of 40 000 bronze weapons, ranging from crossbows, spears, arrowheads and axes.

These weapons have remained intact after more than 2 000 yeas of potential vandalism ⁸. The designers used chrome plating technology to protect the weapons, a technique first used by the Germans in 1937 and Americans in 1950 .This indicates that the Chinese had access to complex military technology unparalleled at that time, and reveals their mastery of ancient Chinese metallurgy.

The swords and crossbows found at the tomb are believed to have been new when they were buried. The blades signpost evidence of sharpening on a spinning whetstone. An analysis of the heads of arrows and crossbows further indicate use of bronze alloy and tin ⁹.

Social Structures

There is currently no written primary source that talks directly about the Terracotta Army structures. While excavation has not been fully done to establish any writings, inscriptions or eyewitness accounts of the warrior sculptures, historians are still looking for better technology to examine the tomb of Qin. The only existing information about Emperor Qin, although not directly related to the clay statues artifacts, comes from one of the advisors of the emperor, known as Wei Lao.

He was one of his closest advisors and offers description that can help tourists viewing the soldier figures develop a clear visual illustration of the first ruler of a united China. Lao states that “his chest is like that of a bird of prey and his voice like that of a jackal. He is merciless, with the heart of a tiger or a wolf.” ¹⁰. It is perhaps the fear of death that not only made him a staunch believer in life after death, but also coerced him to oppress common Chinese into building the clay structures.

The funerary statues have gained a wide range of social-economical applications, and continue to serve as a fundamental Chinese heritage ¹¹. Their usage in advertising campaigns endorsing a wide range of goods and services elaborate their social cultural places in the Asian hemisphere. Companies dealing with alcohol, computer accessories and museum quality reproduction of the soldiers in different positions and poses are common in the global marketing world.

The Warriors appear in covers of tourist’s media channels to tell the world about the social-political life of ancient china people of the second century BC. However, the Terracotta Army of Qin fails to provide sufficient information about the Chinese past that they seem to depict. There is no mention of the buried Qin’s army in ancient Chinese recordings, despite that fact that China boasts of thousands of years of written history. The only thing that links the statues to Emperor Qin is their proximity to his tomb, and historians like Chen Jingyuan have stated that the figures may not be related to the first emperor ¹².

Given that the soldiers in the funerary tomb have no known history; their social meanings in the Chinese culture have been defined via narratives of memories and practices ¹³. This does not imply a person’s actual recall of the meanings of the soldiers, but rather the collective expression of significant representations of the ancient China was felt as a personal encounter. Images of the soldiers ready to guard Qin in the afterlife portrays the ruling class of the 2nd century China as revolutionaries and progressive people, lively and with high spirit of that time.

The most spectacular thing is not with the soldiers themselves, but the artists of the time who crafted the figures, and the normal soldiers that each model takes after. The collection of the figures is a real representation of the artists skills during Qin Dynasty. Therefore, the clay soldiers have a fundamental value- they are aesthetic objects. Their connection with the real armies of the past and their responsibility towards the emperor is partly misplaced ¹⁴.

The models do not just serve to tell visitors of the ancient political ways of Qin Dynasty, but are a creation of the Chinese artisans. People should therefore look at the soldiers with a multi-dimensional perspective when trying to understand the social-political life of ancient China. This is because the figures have little connection with politics of Qin, but are a true cultural delineation of the skills and innovative nature of common Chinese men and women of the time. It’s not the emperor or the ruling members that made the clay models we have today, but Chinese of humble backgrounds.

The figures symbolize dissatisfaction with the government of Qin, and are a reflection of the social contradictions of the empire. The exploitative character of the Emperor towards the normal Chinese is a lesson visitors can decipher from the statues. These were models designed to sacrifice their lives protecting the emperor in the afterlife. Even though the emperor did not use living soldiers to take care of him during the afterlife, the thought of having model warriors after his death is a concise reflection of his disregard for other people’s lives.

Furthermore, the look on the soldier models is clear illustration of unhappiness, dissatisfaction and anger of the common Chinese citizens ¹⁵. The director of the Terracotta Army Museum, Yuan Zhongyi, describes the value of the soldier’s figures and their impact. He talks about the humble and oppressed people in the lower social classes during the Qin Dynasty, who were the creators of the warrior figures.

He notes that “It was said that severe and hard labor, including forced military service, had been imposed on the people during the first emperor’s reign. The severe punishment meted out to those who disobeyed brought untold suffering to the people” ¹⁶

On the contrary, some historians argue that the soldier models portray people’s willingness to serve and protect strong leaders and policies that result to development. One such is who believe that Qin Shihuan was a mighty military strategist who united China during the ancient feudal society ¹⁷. He established social political measures that eventually made the Dynasty prosperous. His actions led to the establishment of united China, and Qing is described as a reformer who put much emphasis on agriculture.

The emperor implemented policies that ensured smooth farming and demarcation of counties. He unified six large Chinese states into one nation, and introduced joint laws in his empire. He further standardized measurements, currency, and weight while putting emphasis on a single way of writing. He succeeded in joining together older defenses in the northern and western borders, leading to the formation of the initial Great Wall of China.

But this view has been challenged by the fact that Qin Shihuang was a tyrant despite his contributions to china’s economy and politics. Li Si, an official for the Kingdom of Qin, presents a primary source of the life at the courts of the empire. He was a prime minister to the emperor and was one of the leading proponents of a legalist political structure that resulted to oppression of citizens. In support of burning of books and execution of scholars against his policies, Li Si wrote to the emperor urging to take action.

…Your servant suggests that all books in the imperial archives, save the memoirs of Qin, be burned. All persons in the empire, except members of the Academy of Learned Scholars, in possession of the Classic of Odes, the Classic of Documents, and discourses of the hundred philosophers should take them to the local governors and have them indiscriminately burned. Those who dare to talk to each other about the Odes and Documents should be executed and their bodies exposed in the marketplace ¹⁸

He therefore burnt many scholarly books to prevent people from thinking freely, fearing opposition and rebellion. He torched 460 scholars alive after they learnt of his arrogance. Subsequently, he commissioned building of luxurious structures through hard labor, heavy tax and unbearable military supervision. It was these harsh measures that resulted to rebellion after the emperor’s death in 210 BCE.

The army sculptures suggest that ancient China of Qin dynasty had established foreign relations with Western people. There is a theory that claims the artists responsible for designing Terracotta Army were under the stewardship of European foreigners ¹⁹. Writing for National Geographic, William states that the Terracotta acrobats and the bronze statues of ducks, cranes and swans at the tomb of Emperor Qin exhibit Greek influence.

The skeletons have been examined and scientists have confirmed European presence through DNA tests. These Greek artists could have traveled long before Marco Polo from the Hellenistic areas of Western Asia and arrived in China where they trained the local population. Mitochondrial DNA indicates that Europeans intermarried with Chinese during the reign of Emperor Qin, who possibly brought the skills of life-size sculpture making.

The Chinese did not have life-size sculpture making skills before the unification of China, and that they only begun the technology at the time of Qin. This is enough reason to make some scholars purchase the idea of western influence in the funerary tomb making. To supports this theory, some people claim that the reign of Alexander the Great, whose empire stretched to the present day India, made it possible for Chinese artists to encounter Greek arts. The DNA test this confirms that Chinese and Europeans encountered each other at an earlier date.

The Chinese were religious people who put much emphasis on life after death. This can be deducted from one of the emperor’s main reasons for commissioning the construction of the soldier models- to protect him in the afterlife. The Chinese did not only try to experience life after death, but also sought ways of achieving immortality. They made bronze objects representing immortals, in the hope that these objects would attract the immortals to visit the people.

These religious beliefs were in part influenced by the advancement of legalism philosophy ²⁰. This view holds that people are inclined to do more wrong than right given that they are motivated by self -interest desires. It can be argued that this philosophy was a contributing factor to the harsh treatment of citizens by the Qin rulers. Immediately after rising to power, the emperor made legalism the official philosophy of Qin Dynasty and banned all other religions ²¹. Confucianism was highly condemned due to its insistence that human beings are basically good and that people need to be channeled to right to live a good life.

Like many ancient societies of the time, Qin Dynasty was a male dominated society where women’s role in government was highly limited. 10 bones of young were buried with precious jewelry of Gold and Pearl has been discovered at the site ²². It is argued that these women were the emperor’s concubines, who were murdered and mutilated as part of his funerary protocol. They were to accompany him after death.

The role of women in Qin dynasty was to stay at home, take care of men and children and perform household chores. There are no female soldier in the Terracotta Army figures, suggesting that women had no place for politics and other sensitive matters. Male dominance at this time ensures that women had no voice in decision making process.

Conclusion

The Terracotta Army of Qin not only depicts the ancient Chinese culture in a register of history, but also illustrates the past society in a manner that people can create memories related to the past from a social experience. The sight at the museum can be remembered as real-life experiences with the ancient warriors and the past Chinese culture. The museum lets tourists experience and understands the daily life of the past Chinese society, and how political and social structures influenced people’s lives.

Largely a legalist society, the government had total control over the lives of its subjects. This can seen by the suffering of creators of the statues who were normal citizens committed to the will of their master. While the reason for making the pottery figures has always been believed to protect the emperor, the real purpose has remained a mystery.

Qin was a tyrant, and even if he united China and reformed many sectors of the society, his obsession with power and misplaced desires to continue ruling China after his death resulted to suffering of millions of people. He managed to establish the Terracotta Army and the Great Wall through brutality and execution of opposition. In pursuit of power after death, Emperor Huangshi embraced legalism and forced Chinese artist to prepare way for his afterlife command center.

Endnotes

1. Bonaduce, Ilaria, Catharina Blaensdorf, Patrick Dietemann, and Maria Perla Colombini. “The binding media of the polychromy of Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army.” Journal of Cultural Heritage, (2008): 103-108.

2. ibid

3. Davies, David J. “Qin Shihuang’s terracotta warriors and commemorating the cultural state.” Places of Memory in Modern China (2011): 17-49.

4. Liu, Z., A. Mehta, N. Tamura, D. Pickard, B. Rong, T. Zhou, and P. Pianetta. “Influence of Taoism on the invention of the purple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors.” Journal of Archaeological Science, (2007): 1878-1883.

5. Ibid

6. Davies, David J. “Qin Shihuang terracotta warriors and commemorating the cultural state.” Places of Memory in Modern China (2011): 17-49

7. Pruitt, Sarah. “5 Things You May Not Know About the Terra Cotta Army”(2014), http://www.history.com/news/5-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-terra-cotta-army

8. Pruitt, Sarah. “5 Things You May Not Know About the Terra Cotta Army”(2014). History. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/news/5-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-terra-cotta-army

9. Ibid

10. Portal, Jane. “The first emperor: China’s terracotta army”. (Harvard University Press, 2007).

11. Davies, David J. “Qin Shihuang terracotta warriors and commemorating the cultural state.” Places of Memory in Modern China (2011): 17-49.

12 Matten M. “Places of memory in modern China, history, politics, and identity”(2011)

13 Davies, David J. “Qin Shihuang terracotta warriors and commemorating the cultural state.” Places of Memory in Modern China (2011): 17-49.

14. Ibid

15. Bevan, Andrew, Xiuzhen Li, Marcos Martinón-Torres, Susan Green, Yin Xia, Kun Zhao, Zhen Zhao, Shengtao Ma, Wei Cao, and Thilo Rehren. “Computer vision, archaeological classification and China’s terracotta warriors.” (2014): 249-254.

16. Yuan Zhongyi ,. “The Funerary Statues of Emperor Qin’s Mausoleum”. (1983).

17. Wang, Chongren. ” Gudu Xi’an The Ancient Capital of Xian” (1981).

18. Theodore, W. and Bloom, Irene. “Sources of Chinese Tradition” (New York: Columbia University Press, Columbia University Press; 1999).

19. Williams, R. “Discoveries May Rewrite History of China’s Terra-Cotta Warriors”.(National Geographic, 2016).

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/china-first-emperor-terra-cotta-warriors-tomb/

20. “Leadership and Management in China: Philosophies, Theories & Practices” (Cambridge University Press, 2008).

21. ibid

22. Carelli, Francesco. “The terracotta army, London journal of primary care” (2007): 56-57.

Bibliographies

Bevan, Andrew, Xiuzhen Li, Marcos Martinón-Torres, Susan Green, Yin Xia, Kun Zhao, Zhen Zhao, Shengtao Ma, Wei Cao, and Thilo Rehren. “Computer vision, archaeological classification and China’s terracotta warriors.” Journal of Archaeological Science 49 (2014): 249-254.

Carelli, Francesco. “The terracotta army.” London journal of primary care 1, no. 1 (2007): 56-57.

Davies, David J. “Qin Shihuang’s terracotta warriors and commemorating the cultural state.” Places of Memory in Modern China (2011): 17-49.

Ilaria, Bonaduce, , Catharina Blaensdorf, Patrick Dietemann, and Maria Perla Colombini. “The binding media of the polychromy of Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army.” Journal of Cultural Heritage 9, no. 1 (2008): 103-108.

Leadership and Management in China: Philosophies, Theories & Practices. (Cambridge University Press, 2008).

Liu, Z., A. Mehta, N. Tamura, D. Pickard, B. Rong, T. Zhou, and P. Pianetta. “Influence of Taoism on the invention of the purple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors.” Journal of Archaeological Science 34, no. 11 (2007): 1878-1883.

Matten M,. “Places of memory in modern China, history, politics, and identity”(2011). Vol. 5

Portal, Jane. The first emperor: China’s terracotta army. Harvard University Press, 2007.

Pruitt, Sarah. “5 Things You May Not Know About the Terra Cotta Army”(2014). History. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/news/5-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-terra-cotta-army

Theodore, W. and Bloom, Irene. “Sources of Chinese Tradition“,(1999). 2nd ed., vol. 1 (New York: Columbia University Press, Columbia University Press).

Wang,. Chongren. ” Gudu Xi’an The Ancient Capital of Xian” (1981).

Williams, R. “Discoveries May Rewrite History of China’s Terra-Cotta Warriors”.(National Geographic, 2016). Retrieved from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/china-first-emperor-terra-cotta-warriors-tomb/

Yuan Zhongyi ,. ” The Funerary Statues of Emperor Qin’s Mausoleum”. (1983). Beijing

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

Critical Biography of John Calvin

Introduction

The protestant reformation movement was started as a way to repudiate some of the long-held beliefs that had been propagated by the Catholic Church. The growing sentiments against the tight control the papacy had over religious expression contributed to the eventual schism between the reformers and the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation had two critical components: Lutheran and English Reformation.

Luther is acknowledged as the father of reformation that led to the birth of the Protestant church while the Church of England is credited with leading the way in the later reformation. One of the early reformers who profoundly influenced Reformation was John Calvin.

Calvin was pivotal in moving forward the reform agenda but was also vilified by his detractors for some of his teachings such as predestination, weak personality, false spirituality and his participation in the Servetus execution. The following critical review is based on the literary work by Bernard Cottret, Calvin, A Biography: A Biography (2003).

Background History

John Calvin or Jean Cauvin according to French pronunciation was born on July 10th 1509 in France in Noyon Picardy and died at a relatively young age of 55 years in the year 1564. Calvin was born into a family of parents who came from the middle class, with his father being employed in the service of the local bishop[1]. The employment of his father affected his initial decision to send him to further his studies as a priest but later changed his mind and decided to enroll Calvin for training as a lawyer.

According to Cottret[2], Calvin was trained as a lawyer in Orleans and Bourges in the law schools that operated there. While studying, Calvin was profoundly impacted by the emerging ideas of Erasmus which centered on RenaissanceHumanism[3]. Renaissance Humanism aimed to reform the status quo of the church and society, and this laid the foundation for Calvin’s involvement later in the Reformation movement.

The Renaissance Humanism that emphasized salvation by grace and not good works inspired Calvin to undertake studies in Latin, Greek and Hebrew languages which were the primary languages of discourse in Christian antiquity. His studies eventually led him to write his first discourse on clemency based on the commentaries of Seneca in 1532. Bouwsma[4]

Posits that the growing lack of tolerance in Paris to the reform movement forced Calvin to relocate to Basel where his conversion grew stronger as he engaged in intensive studying of the scriptures and theology. This time that was spent in Basel resulted in the first writings of what would later constitute his masterwork publications- the Institutes. This paper in the Institute gave him prominence within the Protestant movement and led leaders of the movement to seek him out as an authority in the movement.

In 1536, Calvin was invited to extend his stay in Geneva where he was temporarily staying, to strengthen the Protestant movement in the town[5]. He later came back to Geneva in 1541 and contributed to the change of leadership of the town under his ordinances. The town efficiently was run under the concepts postulated by Calvin which included the enforcement of morality laws and the abolition of abortion.

Calvin instituted leadership and laws that were meant to make the town to be aligned to the laws of God. The measures initiated by Calvin were humanist in nature including setting up an Academy to train for positions of leadership that were secular based on humanist principles. He is criticized for this period of his life for leaning more on principles that espoused humanist beliefs rather than doctrinal teachings by his detractors.

Calvin was instrumental in making sure that there was continuity in the reformation movement by giving refuge to protestant refugees fleeing religious persecution. The refugees came from as far as England while others came from France. One such refugee who went back to change his country positively was John Knox from England who found refuge in Geneva under the control of Calvin. Many refugees who sought protection in Geneva were drawn to Calvin and to his teachings on reformation which they took back home with them[6].

The school of theology he founded in Geneva was outstanding in offering training for the refugees who went back home after receiving theological training. According to Treasure[7] Calvin was involved in sending back home to France more than 100 Reformed missionaries, and this was critical in strengthening the Reformed Church in the early years of the Reformation.

Criticism

Personality- Calvin was a man whom many considered cold and impersonal when compared to Luther who was considered warm and approachable. His perspectives in life were considered as abstract rather than ideas that were practical for everyday Christian living. This writing was more his solace that portrayed him as a person who lived in his world, cut off from the ordinary laity.

His introvert character could have been caused by feelings of inadequacy about salvation, and these inner deficiencies made him a man of letters. His character of being cold and aloof could also have been contributed to his early upbringing in a class that was relatively privileged and cut off from the common people. The writings were only beneficial to a few within the circles of the Protestant movement much in the same as most liturgical readings in the Catholic Church.

The character of the man Calvin is seen today in Calvinists who today come across as being unemotional, cold and emphasize the ability to control oneself and the environment. This characterization of Calvinists has been an impediment to believers who may embrace the tenets of his philosophy but are put off by the practicality of the ideal Calvinist characterization.

The Institutes- The institutes that were written by Calvin is largely made up of logical and reasoned arguments which are designed to appeal to the academic mind. The writings are more of the personal beliefs of Calvin and which have played a significant role as the central theology of Calvinism. They point to God yet at the same time over emphasize on the frailties of man such as reprobation and depravity. The writings come across as being narrow regarding hermeneutics with the negative portrayal of humanity[8].

Calvin in his writings takes on a prescriptive view of discipleship that is based on instilling fear rather than love. His humanist beliefs are seen to exert influence in his writings where he posits that the middle order of human life is a utility. This emphasis on utility and practicality in Christianity is influenced by his conviction and early influences from Renaissance Humanism. Thus his writings are a strange mix of theology infused with thoughts from the school of humanism.

Calvin rejects some of the sacramental claims of the Catholic Church and retains two sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper in his writings. The point of departure between Calvin and the Catholic Church seem to be superficial as he claims that sacraments are dependent on the faith of the recipient and not on the form of ritual for its sake. This is repudiated in his acceptance of infant baptism which negates the principle of faith by the recipient of the sacrament[9].

His approach to the Lord’s Supper is closer to the consubstantiation position of Luther while rejecting the transubstantiation position of the Catholic Church. His position on the sacrament of the Lord’s Table is thus theologically correct while his position on child baptism is faulty in the same measure.This, therefore, shows his selective rejection of some beliefs of the Catholic Church while holding on to others which question his sincerity as a reformer.

Theology– One of the major criticisms about Calvin is in the theology that he espoused on predestination. According to Perry[10]Calvin posits that certain people were predestined by God to be the “elect” from the foundations of the world. This carries the implications that those who were not predestined were already condemned from the foundations of eternity and therefore no amount of preaching and evangelism can save them.

This presumption by Calvin states that people will be saved and serve God because God chose them and therefore man has no choice in salvation. This is the foundation of Calvinism that is represented by the acronym TULIP. This stands for Total- total inability of man to be good. U- Unconditional election of man. L-limited atonement meaning Christ paid for the few elect.

An i-irresistible meaning man has no choice. P-perseverance meaning that one is always saved if chosen to be among the elect few.The theology of Calvin is therefore unsound due to the shortcomings that are in contrast to the scriptures.

His theology negates the tenets of evangelism since God has already chosen the select fewhe predestined[11]. It negates prayer for family, friends and the sick. It implicitly implies that God is complicit in creating sin. The assumption that man is incapable of being good implies that man cannot be truly remorseful or to repent truly. If man cannot be truly good, he cannot be faulted for acts which are considered sin.

The eternal condemnation of the non-elect portrays God as an unjust God by the concept of double-predestination[12]. John 10:11 states that Christ died for all and not a few elect while James 5:19-20 warns against going back to the sinful ways of the world. This is contrary to Calvinist theology that once a person is saved, they will stay saved.

Protestant Work Ethic– Calvin is credited as being one of the founders of the philosophy known as the Protestant Work Ethic. This philosophy postulates that work is a path to salvation or deliverance. This was from the earliest theology that was developing from the Protestant church, influenced by teaching of Lither on work as a calling or beruft. Calvin expounded on this early thoughts based on his Calvinist ideology that the elect should work daily to perfect their calling with regards to righteousness.

His time spent in Geneva contributed in shaping his thoughts on the work ethic from a Protestant view. While at Geneva, Calvin espoused teachings that work was more beneficial to God than the individual and thus disdained accumulation of wealth. The role of work was to serve God and his work (evangelism) and to serve one’s, neighbor. This is a false premise according to the scripture as seen in 3 John 1:2 which openly shows that it is the will of God for Christians to prosper.

The philosophical teachings of Calvin based on his ideology of Calvinism was contrary to the belief that self-improvement was a viable attainment of work.[13]This is based on his humanist philosophy rather than Scripture which declares that we are expected to be fruitful and to grow ( 2 Peter 1: 8, Genesis 1:22).[14]The humanist philosophical ideals of Calvin which he institutionalized in literature distort the foundational constructs that are scriptural.

The Calvinist ideals that founded the false premise of the Protestant work ethic have a wrong foundation from that man was doomed to work after his fall. Work is not necessary to expiate humankind before a merciful God rather it is an extension of the divinity of God in his creation. This is because God is a worker having created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day ( Genesis 2:2)[15]

Prosperity comes with diligence and self-improvement which leads to the creation of wealth as seen from the scriptures in Proverbs (12:14, 27: 18-27).[16] Work for its sake as the center of moral life and as a measure of virtue and worth is less of scripture and more of Calvinist philosophy. The encouragement of labor as way to edify the Church laid the foundation for Capitalism as part of the Protestant work ethic. Capitalism brought sweeping beneficial changes to the society but also resulted in great inequalities in equal measure.

Spirituality- Calvin posits two metaphors for the Christian life that are found to be wanting from practical application in everyday Christian living. The first metaphor he posits is to compare the life of a Christian to that of a soldier who is called to live a life of rigorous discipline. The Christian soldier is called to bear arms in war against his wickedness in the flesh while learning from the punishments that are visited upon the wicked.

This can be traced to his stay at Geneva where he controlled the town and enforced his strict interpretations of morality according to scripture. The citizens of Geneva who resented his teachings were punished for their intransigence including hangings so that others could learn from such example[17]. The belief that other people suffer so that the elect can learn from their sufferings is false spirituality with no Biblical foundation.

The belief that the misfortune of other people especially the non-elect helps to purge the wickedness of the elect lacks merit in the scriptures. It, therefore, offers a hollow sense of spirituality to the believer. The suffering of the non-elect could be because of demonic oppression, sin or even for God to be glorified according to John 11:4 (NKJV)[18]. Thus the simplification of suffering of the non-elect to their shortcomings which draws the wrath of God is faulty.

The approach is taken to the Christian life as a perpetual conflict negates the rest that was promised to the body of Christ. The finished work of the cross is not complete without works in the flesh. The Christian is expected to suffer as part of the atonement each pays for sin. The suffering of the elect can thus be seen as a manifestation of inward sin that is not confessed that has drawn the ire of God, and thus the elect is punished with affliction.

Another metaphor Calvin draws is to compare the Christian walk with a journey that strenuously progresses in holiness. The journey in holiness involves progressive sanctification in on a daily basis. This presumption by Calvin is faulty from Scripture and offers a Christianity that becomes strenuous by human endeavor and effort. The scriptures declare that we receive the righteousness of God according to Romans 3:22 which are imputed to be by faith (NKJV).

We cannot increase in righteousness but we can increase daily in faith: “For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, ‘The just shall by faith’” (NKJV Romans 1:17)[19]. The pursuit of progressive holiness and sanctification by Calvinists according to Calvin becomes their single-minded goal in their journey of Christianity. The pursuit of the superior virtues may sound spiritual but has no scriptural foundation and therefore sets the Calvinist adherent on a journey of false spirituality.

Apologist– In the tradition of the founding fathers of the Reformation who were apologists, Calvin comes across as a weak apologist. Calvin in his Institutes posits that faith is always reasonable even though it may appear at times as being reasonable. This is contrary to the leanings of other apologists like Luther who steadfastly faith is unchanging and central to understanding the workings of God in human affairs.

This is seen when Calvin wrote an epistle dedicated to King Francis who was purging the early reform movement in Paris. The dedicatory epistle sounds more like a letter of apology from an individual who seems to be undergoing internal struggles as to his beliefs. This epistle questions his true allegiance to the Reformation movement as it introduces some skepticism as regards his core theology.

This epistle can be interpreted as the surest sign that Calvin was still willing to make a rapprochement with the Catholic Church and thus not a true reformer. It could also be due to his belief that rulers and authorities could be instrumental in propagating the reform movement.[20]

Michael Servetus– The role that Calvin played in the execution of Michael Servetus helped put a blemish on his beliefs which were compared to the Catholic Church from which he had broken way from. Servetus was of the same age as Calvin and equally learned in theology but was considered a heretic by both Catholics and Protestants[21].

While fleeing from certain death from Roman Catholic authorities; he entered by chance into a church where Calvin was preaching. Calvin ordered his arrest, and he was subsequently charged with heresy and blasphemy. This arrest of a non-citizen of Geneva has raised questions as to the legality of his arrest and subsequent execution by burning at the stake[22].

The Protestant Council that tried him condemned him to death at a time when Calvin was in charge of the city of Geneva. Calvin is accused of not being forthright for his role in the execution of Servetus especially for a movement that was based on reform.

The execution by the Protestant church under a leading reformer such as Calvin was no different from the practices that had estranged the movement from the Catholic Church. Burning at the stake was the common form of execution for heretics, some of whom were innocent. The expected reforms within this movement included the forms of punishment that were to be meted on heretics such as imprisonment.

The decision to follow in the traditional Catholic forms of punishment was blight on the record of the early reformers under the leadership of Calvin. The practice of burning at stake had been misused by the Catholic Church, and this execution of Servetus negatively impacted the gains that were being made by the Protestant Church[23]. Most reformers of this period rejected the verdict that was reached by the council under the leadership of Calvin as being anti-reformist.

Missionary Work– The perspective taken by Calvin on evangelism and missionary work is faulty and is a product of his humanistic philosophy combined with theology. Calvin believed that Christian rulers and magistrates could play a major role in spreading Christianity. This is seen from his belief that the ascension to the throne by Queen Elizabeth in 1558 could help propagate Christianity[24].

The lack of demarcation between Church and the State could also have been influenced from his time as the chief authority in the town of Geneva where he sought to join the Church and the civic authority. This is also seen from his correspondence with Jeanne d’Albret who was a woman from the French nobility to support the reformation in France[25].

His approach to missionary work was more from a theological perspective rather than from a practical approach. He believed more in sending literature to the mission fields rather than personally engaging on the ground. His academic approach to evangelism could partly have been influenced by his doctrinal beliefs in predestination.

Assessment

John Calvin played an important role within the reformation movement that led to the growth of a strong and vibrant Protestant Church as it stands today[26]. His scholarly approach to interpreting Scripture made him write several Bible commentaries on the New and Old Testament. He is credited as being the founder of the Presbyterian system of church leadership which is widely used today by most churches.

The structure he founded on church government has remained largely unchanged to this day. The theological principles he posited laid the foundation of Calvinism and the modern day Calvinist Church. His influences can be seen in the Reformations that were impacted by his works in churches in Scotland, France, and Germany. His works also affected the Baptist Church tremendously as well as the churches that were planted in North America.

The influence of Calvin was not only limited to the church but also contributed to the aspects of Western civilization such as capitalism and Puritanism. His writings contributed to the development of the concept of the Protestant work ethic and capitalism. His writings on theology also contributed to the corporate body knowledge within Christianity[27].

His influence on leading reformers of his time impacted the reformation with his focus on his peculiar form of evangelism by writing letters. His writings and focus on distributing the Bible as well as his writings helped to propagate the gospel across Europe and the rest of the world. His thoughts on morality and ethics have contributed to the development of the philosophy of Humanism as well as Utilitarianism.

Despite his divergent views from some leading reformers such as Martin Luther, Calvin made significant contributions as an apologist for Reformation as well as a Bible expositor of his generation. He lived a life that was predestined to make an impact that is still felt in this generation.

Conclusion

The life of John Calvin was a life that was lived to the dedication of reforming the body of Christ. The pursuit of education in his formative years was instrumental in shaping his mental astuteness that would be pivotal in his theological studies. The early proponents of Renaissance Humanism inspired him on the journey to a deeper study of the scriptures and led him to begin his writings. The works of Calvin have both positive and negative aspects that are attached to them.

Critics of Calvin majorly criticize him on his theological perspectives on predestination. Some other shortcomings can be found in his beliefs on infant baptism. His detractors fault his participation in the execution of Michael Servetus. His personality is equally faulted as being a cold and unapproachable person. Despite the many negative aspects of his life and writings, Calvin is still acknowledged today as one of the most influential thinkers in the history of the church and therefore a church Statesman.

Bibliography

Boa, Kenneth D and Bowman, Robert D. “Faith has its Reasons” Retrieved from https://bible.org/series/faith-has-its-reasons

Bouwsma, W., J. John Calvin, French Theologian. Encyclopedia Brittanica. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Calvin

Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.(2003).

Gordon, B. John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion: A biography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.(2016).

Goroncy, J. John Calvin: Servant of the Word. In Rae M., Matheson P., & Knowles B. (Eds.), Calvin The Man and the Legacy. ATF (Australia). (2013). (pp. 13-40). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt163t9d3.5

Halfond, G. The History Teacher, 45(2), 313-314. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23265936

Haykin, M., A.G. “A Sacrifice Well Pleasing to God”; John Calvin and the Missionary Endeavor of the Church.pdf. (2015). Retrieved from http://equip.sbts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/9037-SBJT-V13-N.4-Haykin.pdf

John. New King James Version. Bible Society. (2012).

Kim, S. Calvin’s Doctrine of Predestination. In Deus provide bit: Calvin, Schleiermacher, and Barth on the Providence of God. Augsburg Fortress. (2014). (pp. 25-86). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9m0v8x.7

McKee, E. A Week in the Life of John Calvin. In Rae M., Matheson P., & Knowles B. (Eds.), Calvin The Man and the Legacy. ATF (Australia). (2013).(pp. 61-78). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt163t9d3.7

Perry, B. Arguments against Calvinism and Predestination. (2017). Retrieved from http://people.cs.ksu.edu/~bbp9857/calvinism.html

Romans. New King James Version. Bible Society.(2012).

Smith, Virgil O., and Yvonne S. Smith. “Bias, History, and the Protestant Work Ethic.” Journal of Management History 17, no. 3 (2011): 282-98, https://search.proquest.com/docview/875621956?accountid=45049

Treasure, G. Calvin: THE WAY, THE TRUTH, AND THE LIFE. In The Huguenots. Yale University Press.(2013). (pp. 75-83). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vm0ht.14

[1]Bouwsma, W., J. John Calvin, French Theologian. Encyclopedia Brittanica. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Calvin

[2]Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.(2003). Pg. 53.

[3]Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.(2003). Pg. 263.

[4]Bouwsma, W., J. John Calvin, French Theologian. Encyclopedia Brittanica. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Calvin

[5] Ibid, pg. 110.

[6]Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group. (2003). Pg. 184.

[7]Treasure, G. Calvin: THE WAY, THE TRUTH, AND THE LIFE. In The Huguenots. Yale University Press. (2013). (pp. 78). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vm0ht.14

[8]Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.(2003). Pg. 320.

[9]Goroncy, J. John Calvin: Servant of the Word. In Rae M., Matheson P., & Knowles B. (Eds.), Calvin The Man and the Legacy. ATF (Australia). (2013). (pp. 25). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt163t9d3.5

[10]Perry, B. Arguments against Calvinism and Predestination. (2017). Retrieved from http://people.cs.ksu.edu/~bbp9857/calvinism.html

[11]Kim, S. Calvin’s Doctrine of Predestination. In Deus provide bit: Calvin, Schleiermacher, and Barth on the Providence of God. (2014). (pp. 62). Augsburg Fortress. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9m0v8x.7

[12]Perry, B. Arguments against Calvinism and Predestination. (2017). Retrieved from http://people.cs.ksu.edu/~bbp9857/calvinism.html

[13] Smith, Virgil O., and Yvonne S. Smith. “Bias, History, and the Protestant Work Ethic.” Journal of Management History 17, no. 3 (2011): 282-98, https://search.proquest.com/docview/875621956?accountid=45049.

[14] 2Peter 1:8 New King James Version, Bible Society, 2012, Genesis 1:22 New King James Version, Bible Society, 2012.

[15] Genesis 2:2 New King James Version, Bible Society, 2012.

[16] Proverbs 12:14 New King James Version, Bible Society, Proverbs 27:18-27 New King James Version, Bible Society, 2012.

[17]Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.(2003). Pg. 220.

[18]John. New King James Version. Bible Society. (2012).

[19]Romans. New King James Version. Bible Society.(2012).

[20] Boa, Kenneth D and Bowman, Robert D. “Faith has its Reasons” Retrieved from https://bible.org/series/faith-has-its-reasons

[21]Gordon, B. John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion: A biography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.(2016). Pg. 25-29.

[22]Cottret, B. Calvin, A Biography: A Biography. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.(2003). Pg. 208.

[23]Ibid. Pp. 230.

[24]Haykin, M., A.G. “A Sacrifice Well Pleasing to God”; John Calvin and the Missionary Endeavor of the Church.pdf. (2015). Retrieved from http://equip.sbts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/9037-SBJT-V13-N.4-Haykin.pdf

[25] Ibid.

[26]Halfond, G. The History Teacher, 45(2), (2012). 313-314. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23265936

[27]McKee, E. A Week in the Life of John Calvin. In Rae M., Matheson P., & Knowles B. (Eds.), Calvin The Man and the Legacy. ATF (Australia). (2013). (pp. 70). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt163t9d3.7

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

The IRA (Irish Republican Army)

The IRA

Introduction

This paper explores the Irish Republican Army (IRA) regarding its organizational structure and operations. The paper shows the determination and overwhelming support that the IRA had in its bid to unify Ireland and secure socialist independence from the British rule.

The IRA Operations

The Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisional IRA) was an Irish republican paramilitary organization established with the purpose of rendering British rule in Ireland ineffective and securing socialist independence during the Troubles-era.

The IRA, known by different names including the Provisional IRA, the Provos, and PIRA among others aimed at unifying Ireland by all means. The Provisional IRA took over from the original IRA in 1969 after the republican movement split. From its inception, the group’s operations were independent of political influence.

The Troubles had begun in 1968 when the Royal Ulster Consabulary (RUC) and Ulster loyalists attacked a Catholic-constituted civil rights group (Cottrell, 2014). As a result of the violent attack on the peaceful campaigners, a riot ensued in August 1969 leading to the deployment of British troops.

Whereas the IRA’s initial campaign was defensive, the group resorted to an offensive campaign in 1971 aimed at forcing the British to withdraw from Northern Ireland. The IRA employed guerilla tactics against RUC and the British army in both urban and rural establishments. The group also ran a bombing campaign in England and Northern Ireland with the aim of achieving socialist independence.

Following the re-admission of the IRA’s political wing into the Northern Ireland peace talks, the group called a final ceasefire in July 1997. The IRA disarmed in 2005 under international supervision. Since the Provisional IRA ceasefire, there have been several groups that have emerged such as the Continuity IRA and the Real IRA. These splinter groups are still operating in the low-level nonconformist Irish Republican campaign.

Organizational Structure and Scope

Leadership

According to Horgan and Taylor (2007), the IRA was one of the most sophisticated and highly organized paramilitary groups in the world. The IRA’s organization was structured hierarchically. The IRA Army Council was the top leadership of the organization, headed by the Chief of Staff.

The Chief of Staff appointed the General and the Quartermaster General, consisting of heads of departments for security, operations, publicity, intelligence, training, engineering, finance, and armory. The Council is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization (Boyne, 1996).

The General Army Convention (GAC) was the supreme decision-making arm of the IRA and met on relatively rare occasions. The IRA Constitution provided for GAC meetings to be conducted once every two years but for exceptional circumstances which would call for a postponement of the meeting.

GACs met regularly before 1969, after which they have only met thrice in 1970, 1986 and 2005. The rarity of their meeting has been a result of the need to maintain secrecy for the large IRA group. The GAC thus elected an executive comprising of 12 members, who selected seven volunteers to the IRA Army Council.

Regional Command

The IRA comprised of the Northern Command operating in the nine Ulster counties and the Louth and Leitrim border counties, and a Northern Command which operated in the other parts of Ireland. Most of the IRA members came from Northern Ireland and the Border counties, while others come from Louth-Armagh border area, Donegal, Derry, and Belfast. Initially, the IRA’s leadership was based in Dublin, but in 1997, the Northern Command was granted the “war-zone” command parallel to the introduction of local cell structures (Kennedy-Pipe, 2014).

Brigades

The IRA’s ordinary members were referred to as volunteers (Moran, 2016). They were organized into units according to conventional military structures. Volunteers based in one area established a company as part of a battalion or brigade. The brigades were organized in county lines although at times they were subdivided especially in major urban settings.

The Belfast Brigade comprised of three battalions in the east, north and west parts of the city. During the initial years of the Troubles, the Belfast Brigade expanded very fast from just 50 members in 1969 to 1,200 members at the end of 1971. The Belfast Brigade became large but loosely controlled.

In 1972, the Derry Battalion was upgraded to a brigade following a rapid increase in membership. The increased membership was due to the killing of 13 unarmed demonstrators at a civil rights march during the Bloody Sunday. The Derry Brigade further controlled the northeastern County Donegal and northern County Londonderry (Boyne, 1996).

County Armagh comprised of four battalions; with the two battalions in South Armagh being more active than the two units in North Armagh. Particularly, Tyrone consisted of a large IRA presence with three Brigades operating in the east, mid and west. The notorious East Tyrone Brigade also commanded county Monaghan.

The IRA battalions and companies were structured similarly with each comprising of a commanding officer, quartermaster, intelligence officer, and explosives officer. Some battalions and companies further recruited a finance officer or training officer.

Active Service Units

The operational arm comprised of cells referred to as Active Service Units (ASUs). Each cell comprised of five to eight members (Boyne, 1996). From 1973, due to security vulnerability, the organization began to break the larger conventional military structure. Battalion structures were replaced by a system of two parallel types of unit within the brigades.

The company structures were reconstituted to deal with such tasks as hiding weapons, intelligence-gathering, and “policing” nationalist areas. Whereas the old “company” structures provided support services, ASUs were tasked with the bulk of actual tasks. For purposes of improving operational capacity and security of the IRA, ASUs were smaller, tight-knit cells. The brigade’s quartermaster controlled weapons in the unit cells.

Apart from the rest of brigades and battalions, the South Armagh Brigade retained its traditional hierarchical structure and deployed a relatively larger number of volunteers in its operations. The reason for the brigade’s smooth running of operations is because it did not have as many security problems as the other brigades.

The Southern Command comprised of a Southern Brigade and various ASUs in rural areas, which were responsible for importing and storing arms for the Northern units and mobilizing finances through robberies and other means.

It is not clear on the number of people that joined the IRA during the Troubles. In the late 1980s, the IRA’s membership in Northern Ireland was estimated at 300 in ASUs and about 450 in supporting roles. This did not account for the IRA units in the Republic of Ireland or Britain, and continental Europe. In 2005, the government recorded an approximation of 1,000 to 1,500 active IRA members.

Logistical and Operational Requirements

During the initial stages of the Troubles, the IRA was poorly armed. It used the traditional World War II weaponry such as Thompson submachine guns and M1 Garands. However, in the early 1970s, the IRA obtained sophisticated weapons from they’re the United States and Libya supporters and purchased more weapons from dealers in the Middle East, America, Europe and other parts of the world.

The support from the IRA’s allies was regarding sharing training techniques, weapons and funding (Gill et al., 2014). Whereas Libya’s donation of arms to the organization was prevalent in the 1980s, the IRA attracted massive support from its Irish-American allies who provided funding and guns. The IRA was well funded to the extent that they provided a stipend to its members and offered support to families of incarcerated members.

The IRA organized for fundraising in the Irish Republic, the United and across the continent to provide for the relief of the families of IRA prisoners. Sinn Fein, the IRA political wing, is reported to the richest political party in Ireland. Most of the funding for Sinn Feinn was from the United States (Taylor, 2014). The Irish Northern Aid Committee based in the United States is reported to have been the principal source of IRA funds.

Supporters of IRA in the United States raised funds directly and indirectly, at lectures, film shows, house parties, dinners and collections in clubs and bars. Cash was also raised through Sinn Fein’s commercial activities such as books, pamphlets, and Christmas cards.

The IRA supplemented imported weaponry by developing their own. The rationale behind the production of weapons was to avoid dependency on supply into Ireland by air or by the sea, which was not fully reliable. Thus, the IRA called on the services of experienced engineers to help in building weapons such as home-made mortars. The organization also engaged the use of university-educated computer experts to volunteer in the construction of sophisticated timing and remote-control mechanisms that were used in mortars and bombs.

Reports indicate that the IRA utilized the ceasefire period for upgrading these mechanisms and developing techniques for combating the ‘disruptive’ radio signals used by the British Army. In 1993, the Garda uncovered an IRA workshop, where a wide range of advanced electronic detonators was being produced (Gill & Horgan, 2013).

During the initial years of the conflict, the IRA majorly focused on the provision of support to nationalist rioters and defending of nationalist areas. As a result, the IRA obtained support for its activities due to their perceived efforts to defend the Irish nationalist and Catholics against aggression.

Between 1971 and 1994, the IRA engaged in offensive operations targeting the RUC, the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR), the British army and Northern Ireland economic targets, while some IRA members attacked Protestant civilians. The IRA also targeted British government officials, the British Army in England, judges, and politicians.

During the Troubles era, IRA members became skilled in the production of explosives from substances such as fertilizers and nitrobenzene. These explosives were utilized in both small devices for throwing at the North’s security forces and large bombs for blowing up buildings. The NRA also produced home-made weapons such as the drogue bomb and nail bomb. The IRA used the ceasefire period to produce the ‘Mark 17’ mortar, which to date is one of the most destructive weapons in the world (Gill, 2017).

The IRA decommissioned its weapons in 2005 under international supervision. The weapons decommissioned included; handguns, hand grenades, rocket-propelled grenade launchers, detonators, flamethrowers, surface-to-air missiles, heavy machine guns, tonnes of Semtex, and rifles.

Conclusion

While the public reacted to the IRA’s activities with love and criticism in equal measure, it is evident that the organization played a huge role in raising economic and political activism in Ireland and the development of modern warfare equipment. The organization stands out as one of the most properly structured paramilitary groups in the world.

References

Boyne, S. (1996). Uncovering the Irish Republican Army. Jane’s Intelligence Review. Retrieved from: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ira/inside/weapons.html

Cottrell, P. (2014). The Anglo-Irish War: The Troubles of 1913–1922. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Gill, P. (2017). Tactical Innovation and the Provisional Irish Republican Army. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(7), 573-585.

Gill, P., & Horgan, J. (2013). Who were the volunteers? 1 The shifting sociological and operational profile of 1240 provisional Irish Republican Army members. Terrorism and Political Violence, 25(3), 435-456.

Gill, P., Lee, J., Rethemeyer, K. R., Horgan, J., & Asal, V. (2014). Lethal connections: The determinants of network connections in the Provisional Irish Republican Army, 1970–1998. International Interactions, 40(1), 52-78.

Horgan, J., & Taylor, M. (1997). The provisional Irish Republican army: Command and functional structure. Terrorism and Political Violence, 9(3), 1-32.

Kennedy-Pipe, C. (2014). The origins of the present troubles in Northern Ireland. Routledge.

Moran, J. (2016). From Northern Ireland to Afghanistan: British military intelligence operations, ethics and human rights. Routledge.

Taylor, P. (2014). The Provos: The IRA and Sinn Fein. A&C Black.

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here.

Summary of the Treaty of Versailles (Wilde, 2016)

Summary of the Treaty of Versailles (Wilde, 2016)

Blame: The clause 231 of the Treaty of Versailles blamed German for instigating he war and causing immense loss and damages.

Repartations: Germans were forced to admit full responsibility for starting World War 1. In addition, they were to pay all the material damages amounting to £ 6,600 million until 1984

Army: The army was restricted to a total of 100, 000 personnel. The presence of any army was removed from the territory of Rhineland that Germany had. Additionally, the army in Germany was left with 6 battleships, no aeroplanes and submarines.

Territory: Germany lost 12% of their population as they were given independence and sovereignty with the setting of the boundaries. In addition, they lost their colonies in overseas territories. Moreover, their lost 10% of productive land that had coalfields, iron and steel industry.

Areas of strength/weakness in the original treaty

The treaty provided an opportunity for the creation of an international organization to maintain peace in Europe called the League of Nations. Secondly, the treaty provided the nations with sovereignty by instituting boundaries. Thirdly, the treaty resulted in de-militarization of Germany which ensured that there was peace and stability in the region. Lastly, the treaty provided Poland, Hungary and Czeschoslovakia independence and 45 countries participated in the treaty, hence enforcing its legality.

On the other hand, the weakness in the treaty is that the League of Nations was incapacitated when it came to implementing their decisions. They lacked a military section that could help them enforce their authority in the member countries. Secondly, countries like Japan and Italy were against the treaty as they felt they did not get sufficient reward as Allies. Thirdly, the exclusion of USA, Russia and Germany from the treaty weakened the League of Nations. Lastly, the treaty weakened the Germans who felt that they were unfairly treated, hence resented the treaty.

Make a prediction of how the original treaty of Versailles could lead to future conflict in Europe

The treaty of Versailles infuriated the Germans and the disadvantaged parties. The Germans were loaded with debt and the unemployment situation in the country worsened. This provided a suitable environment for regrouping and formation of an army against the European nations. This lead to world war 2.

TREATY OF JUSTICE

The aim of the treaty was to ensure peace and prevent the reoccurrence of another world war. In addition, the treaty was supposed to punish the guilty parties and decapitate them from ever rising. The treaty is being written to provide the world with a new era where the nations will be able to relate in a friendly manner to foster trade and peace.

Restrictions/Punishment

The payment of penalties amounting to £ 6,600 by the guilty parties after a period of one year of the signing of the contract and until 1990.
The reallocation of the overseas territories that the instigators controlled fairly to the Allied nations
Any nations that will form any form of alliance with respect to equipping their military will also be stripped of their overseas colonies.
The provision of independence to the countries that wanted to defect from the instigators of the war. Boundaries will be set in place and support to strengthen their identity.
Strict monitoring of their operations by setting up an international organization, League of Nations, to oversee the operations of the instigator.

Conclusion

The Treaty of Justice is focused to ensure that the peace was restored in the world and that the guilty parties were punished. The punishment is set in a manner that it will be fair to all the parties involved to reduce hostility. Moreover, the punishments are just to ensure that the instigators are able to support their economy and the innocent citizens. The violation of the treaty will result in the nations being stripped of their sovereignty. This will result in the nation being controlled and governed by the League of Nations the international organization mandate to maintain peace.

Date: 28^th July 1919

List of Signing countries/representatives

Reference

Wilde, R. (2016). The Treaty of Versailles- An Overview. About Education.

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

God, Glory, Gold: European Exploration

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

God, Glory, Gold

Europeans began their modern exploration of the world in the period around the fourteenth and sixteenth century. Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, and England are the European states that were the foremost in this enterprise. The explorations increased their knowledge of the wider world. They were in most cases linked to missionary work, trade, and conquests as the European states sought to increase their religious, economic and political influence throughout the world. God, glory and gold were the motivation behind Europeans exploration.

In regard to god, Edgar et al argue that Europeans were motivated by the desire to spread Christianity through numerous missionary works especially in most parts of Americas. Edgar et al. argue that during the Middle Ages and the period around 1500 and 1750, Christianity was dominant in Europe but had died in most part of Americas.

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

The belief held by majority of the Europeans who were on the mission to spread Christianity was that salvation through Christ Jesus was the only justifiable one and there was need to spread it throughout the world. They were aware of the fact that most parts of Americas had not embraced Christianity and that is why they ventured into those regions. God made Europeans to explore as they traveled the seas to almost every part of the globe in a bid to spread Christianity.

Glory

Most European states wanted recognition and therefore had to search for it. Most of them were ruled by monarchies and there was need for glory for the king. Edgar et al further argue that the power of a given state is directly related to its wealth.

The argument is informed by the Mercantilism and Zero- sum Gain thinking that was prevalent around 1300 to 1750 that, if a state does not get the wealth another state would. Therefore, these states and its citizens sought to seek more wealth hence more power in war which eventually translates to glory and recognition.

Different European states explored various regions of the world, and in reference to this discussion Americas, with an intention to obtain resources from them in addition to conquering some of them and gain glory for their immense strength; more territories a European state occupied compared to other states, the more glory and recognition it gained.

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

Gold

Gold was a major motivation to Europeans’ exploration. As has been noted in the glory’s motivation, European states wanted wealth of their own because wealth was linked to power. In order to accumulate more wealth for their states and make their states and people prosperous, Europeans started to look for resources in Americas.

It is worth noting that, resources in Europe were not sufficient for the states and for meeting their citizens’ needs at that time and foreseeable future and it was necessary to venture in other regions. For instance, Spain ventured into South America for gold and silver, England ventured into North America for manual labor and natural resources, and France ventured in some parts of Americas for natural resources, with no particular region exactly.

These explorations were meant to bolster the economic and political strengths of European states. The exploration resulted to settlement of some of Europeans in Americas; for instance, there is majority of people of Spanish origin living in Americas presently. Finally, it is important to point out that god, glory, and gold were linked to each other in regard to Europeans’ exploration.

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here