Prison litigation refers to cases filed by inmates in the public courts of law. The number of prison litigation in the 1980’s skyrocketed to 23,230 filed in the US district courts under the Title 42 within the Federal Statute. The number increased by 49% in the 1996 an aspect that necessitated the Congress to pass the Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) to reduce the number of cases (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2014). The PLRA has two pillars, which are the prospective relief provision and the prisoner litigation provisions.
The two pillars have three major facets that hold the prison litigation in place. The prisoners need to go through all the administrative channels before going to the federal courts. Secondly, prisoners filing forma pauperis are required to pay the courts and filing cost via their funds that are present in the correctional trust fund. Lastly, the prisoners are not permitted to file forma pauperis if they have filed cases that have were terminated by the courts due to malevolence (Campbell, 2009).
The PLRA amendments served to benefit one party that is the courts by reducing the number of cases in the courts but were disadvantageous to the prisoners. The amendment makes it difficult for the prisoners to be guaranteed fair hearing in the federal and state courts. The amendment provides a long chain for the prisoners to follow before they file their cases in the court termed as exhaustion requirement.
According to Margo Schlanger who has done research on the impact of PLRA, she discovered that most of the cases filed within the system are discarded for frivolous issues. Some of them include missing a deadline, filing the documents with red ink or attaching medical records to support their claims in their submissions. The aspect makes it harder for the prisoners to not only file their cases but also win them (Sullivan, 2013). The legal system needs to make sure that the rights of all citizens by the fact that they are human beings are upheld, but inmates are shunned under the pretext of the PLRA.
The second effect is that it does limit the number of experienced lawyers willing to represent the prisoner. The reason for this is that the PLRA does limit the contingent rates that the lawyers can recover to 150% of the judgment and the hourly fees to 150% of the appointed counsel rates by the courts. This aspect coupled with the fact that the chances of winning are minimal deters them from taking the cases hence placing the inmates at a disadvantageous point.
Based on Booker (2016), only 5% of the cases involving inmates in 2012 was represented by lawyers when compared to 65% of the cases involving non-incarcerated individuals. The disparity reduces the chances of the inmates to get a fair trial and have an equal chance of winning the cases filed against the system.
Thirdly, the policy restricts the inmates from recovering from mental or emotional injury without proving a physical injury took place. In the prison case scenario, inmates are at times coerced into sex, discriminated against regarding religion, ethnicity among other violations within the constitution that do not involve physical injury. The prison and the legal system have a duty of ensuring such aspects do not occur, and in the case, they do the perpetrators face punishment. Based on this aspect the inmates end up adopting violence as a coping mechanism in the harsh environment while some commit suicide as a way of escaping their torture (Bark, 2014)
Prisons are areas where the criminals are expected to reform, but with the PLRA the reform involves infringing immensely on their rights as human beings. The courts have minimal authority when it comes to altering the prison policies to protect the inmates. The incapacitation of the courts gives more power to the administrators to set up more hurdles when the inmates are filing their cases (Schlanger and Shay, 2008). The increase in procedures and policies set do frustrate the inmates as it limits the chances of addressing their grievances.
Question 2
According to Schlanger and Shay (2008) jails play an integral role in the criminal justice system as they hold inmates as they await their trial, sentencing or charges. The jails serve to separate the criminals from the innocent people in the society. The aim of the separation is to keep the society safe from the criminal who wants to create havoc. Jails are typically run by the local government while others by cities or managed by people privately through contracts with the local government
The jail system holds criminals who have done petty offenses or those serving a sentence of less than one year. The inmate, in this case, is run through a system that will help them change their perspective on life, in other words, make them fit in the society. Jail system has a rehabilitation program that does give the inmates skills that will enable them to get employment after their sentence (Terry, 2009).
Furthermore, the jails decongest the state prisons hence ensuring manageable numbers. The USA as an estimate of 3,300 jails that hold 1/3 of 2 million inmates, the number has increased tremendously over the years due to the lifestyle changes in the society. It is true that there is a negative correlation between the rate of criminal increase and the jails in the country resulting in overcrowding in the system (Sullivan, 2013).
I believe the jail system is necessary as it does deter people from engaging in crime. The harsh conditions in the present jail system make many people rethink their decision to commit a crime. Moreover, the jail system does punish the criminals by taking away some privileges they enjoyed in the free world and aid them in reforming. Retribution is part and parcel of the jail system as it saves to bring a reformed individual to the society.
Question 3
Three punishment and incarceration theories form the basis of treatment programs they include utilitarian, retributive and denunciation. The utilitarian theory focuses on punishing the criminals to serve as a lesson to them and other members of the society. Under the utilitarian theory, offenders go to jail or prison to deter them from engaging in the same crime for a period (Mallik, 2014). When they are under the system, the system does introduce harsh living conditions that will make them regret their mistake.
The regret is what leads to the next step, which is rehabilitation. Rehabilitation deals with treating mental illness, violent behavior, and drug dependency. It also does incorporate educational skills that give the inmates skills and knowledge that will enable them to get jobs when they integrate into the society (Schlanger and Shay, 2008).
The second treatment program focuses on the retributive theory where the criminal gets punished for their offense (Mallik, 2014). In the USA, some states still have the capital punishment for offenders. The capital punishment serves to punish the offenders for the crime they committed and does give justice to the victims. The severity of the issue does make many potential offenders abstain from engaging in any criminal activity that will cost them their lives (Gottschalk, 2006).
The last one is the denunciation whereby the society subjects an individual to societal condemnation (Mallik, 2014). An example is when someone gives out information to a competitor in the business world. The publication of their name in the newspapers and the media serves to condemn them for their actions, and the business industry will shun their serves.
Treatment programs serve as a means of reforming the criminals into productive citizens. The programs give the criminals a second chance to achieve their potentials which do result in the growth of the nation. The treatment programs give the society an opportunity to deter potential criminals from engaging in crime. The major disadvantage is that managing the programs is costly and does add an immense burden to the state and federal system (Lowenkamp, Latessa and Smith, 2006).
Based on my analysis, I can conclude that they are necessary for ensuring that the victims get justice and the offender gets punished for their offense. The treatment programs provide the society with an opportunity to move forward from a negative event in their lives.
Question 4
Correctional system in the USA has undergone many amendments with the aim of formulating means to reduce the over congestion in the prisons and jail system. The first correctional policy is the reduction in the harsh sentences within the criminal judicial system. Many states in the USA have eradicated capital punishment in preference for the rehabilitation sentences (Lowenkamp et al., 2006).The adoption of the utilitarian approach with the aim of appearing democratic has increased the number of offenders hence increasing the number of inmates in the system.
Secondly, the AB 109 also known as the realignment bill serves the purpose of diverting the risk of punishing low-risk offender to the counties from the state. It also altered the three strikes law……” where the defendant convicted of any new felony, having suffered one prior conviction of a serious felony to be sentenced to state prison for twice the term otherwise provided for the crime…,’’ (California’s Three Strikes Sentencing Law – criminal_justice, 2017).
The AB 109 does increase the chances of criminals viewing the system as being lenient hence increasing their chances to engage in serve crimes. An example of the negative impact of this is the shooting of Whittier police officer Keith Boyer by an offender who was on a locally supervised probation instead of jail (Realignment (AB 109) in California, 2017).
The third correctional policy is the hands-off doctrine that eliminated the supreme court’s involvement in prison operations. The policy has resulted in the correctional facilities being under the direct control of the administrators. In the case, an inmate feels offended by the jail system and want their grievances addressed the long channels tend to limit them from getting justice (Gendreau, Goggin, and Smith, 2000). The hands-off policy is closely tied to the denunciation theory where the society does shun the inmates, in this case, the administrators. The aspect as resulted in the increase in violence in various jails and prisons around the country.
As discussed in this paper there is a conflict of goals that tend to affect the future corrections system. Different states apply different correctional policies when it comes to dealing with offenders. The drive is often political, civil or economic pressures faced by the legislature. The conflict in goals leads to lenient policies that favor one party while ignoring the other party directly or indirectly involved in a crime.
The second challenge is getting adequate funding. The correctional facilities in the current are underfunded by the federal and the state government. In 2016, the total budget allocated to the correctional facility was $71 billion which is not proportional to the high number of inmates in these facilities.
Thirdly, the correctional facilities have understaffed an aspect that makes it difficult to enroll the correctional programs fully. The aspect results in the offenders viewing jail term as a break from their real lives instead of a period to reform. The perception has led to the increase in the number of second-time offenders across the country (Gottschalk, 2006).
Lastly, there is a lack of proper coordination between the different agencies involved in the criminal justice system when it comes to correctional activities. The lack of a seamless flow of information on how to reform the inmates and decongest the system has rendered the correctional system ineffective (Gendreau et al., 2000).
In conclusion, the future seems bleak in the correctional system if the legislature and the society do not take a step to work together. The joint effort will enable the future generations to grow up with morals and the institution of progressive correctional policies that will reduce the rate of crime in the country.
REFERENCES
Bark, N. (2014). Prisoner mental health in the USA. Int Psychiatry, 11, 53-5.
Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Dep’t of Justice, (2014). Survey of State Criminal History Information Systems.
California’s Three Strikes Sentencing Law – criminal_justice. (2017). Courts.ca.gov. Retrieved 2 July 2017, from http://www.courts.ca.gov/20142.htm
Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., & Smith, P. (2000). Generating rational correctional policies: An introduction to advances in cumulating knowledge. Corrections Management Quarterly, 4, 52-60.
Gottschalk, M. (2006). The prison and the gallows: The politics of mass incarceration in America. Cambridge University Press.
Lowenkamp, C. T., Latessa, E. J., & Smith, P. (2006). Does correctional program quality really matter? The impact of adhering to the principles of effective intervention. Criminology & Public Policy, 5(3), 575-594.
Mallik, A. (2014). Theories of Punishment in the Ethics of Philosophy. Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Science & English Language.
Schlanger, M., & Shay, G. (2008). Preserving the rule of law in America’s jails and prisons: The case for amending the Prison Litigation Reform Act.
Sullivan, K. T. (2013). To free or not to free: Rethinking release orders under the prison litigation reform act after Brown v. Plata. BCJL & Soc. Just., 33, 419.
All over the world, the criminal justice system of any state serves two major objectives; enforcement of the law of the land, and correction of offenders through various reform institutions. In this regard, criminal justice can be construed to mean a system governed by standard practices that aim to uphold social control, detecting and preventing crime, and most importantly sanctioning offenders through the use of various forms of punishments.
Significantly, criminal punishment is applied as a way to encourage proper conduct between individuals in the society and at the same time make one take responsibility for a wrongful act committed against another. In this respect, retaliatory acts are avoided because victims of crime will be satisfied that the wrongdoer has faced equal punishment in comparison with the act done. Notably, Lollar (2014) asserts that punishments can also be used as a compensatory tool towards victims of crime.
Retributive punishment
Foremost, this type of punishment is founded on the belief that the best way to respond to a wrongful act is by using a proportionate punishment. According to Flanders (2014) retributivists are of the opinion that when an offender commits an illegal act, the criminal justice system should make such a person suffer an equal and proportionate punishment.
Amusingly, retributivists attach their justification for proportionate punishment from ancient religious laws such as the ones contained in the Holy Bible, for instance, Exodus 21:23 avers that if any person commits harm, then the resulting punishment should be equal, hence the catchphrase “a life for a life, an eye for an eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.” Notably, similar sentiments are proclaimed in Biblical verses such as 5:38 and Deuteronomy 19:21.
Retributivists argue that as long as the damage has been done, there is nothing that can be done to reverse such damage hence the only way to administer justice is by giving equal punishment (Flanders, 2014). Seemingly, such reasoning can be said to be backward looking such that it does not take into consideration that at times crime may be committed in a unpremeditated way such that punishing an offender for the same would be harsh or excessive.
Another going concern for this form of punishment is that it may encourage revenge and promote retaliation in the society. Also, in some instances, it may be hard to draw the line between punishment that is sufficient and from the punishment that is excessive.
An example of a retributive form of punishment is the death penalty which according to Luliano (2015) is no punishment at all because it only seeks to insert pain as a measure of administering justice but does not address the root causes of crime or even ways of helping individuals refrain from such crime.
Utilitarian Punishment
First, from a wider scope, the utilitarian theory developed by Jeremy Bentham emphasizes that any action within the society should be directed towards achieving maximum satisfaction and catering for the well being of the majority members of the society. The utilitarian form of punishment, threads on the same footing by asserting that the laws that guide the conduct of the people in the society, should be used to maximize the happiness of the society (FERRARO, 2013).
Hence, crime and punishment should be kept to a minimum because they are inconsistent with happiness which the utilitarian theory of punishment asserts. Importantly, proponents of this theory of punishment recognize that having a crime free society may be a fallacy as such recommend that the form of punishment handed down to a wrongdoer should be directed to producing “good” from the person. In this respect, the punishment should not be unlimited.
Unlike the retributive form of punishment, which is said to be backward looking, the utilitarian form of punishment is largely presumed to be proactive on crime. For instance, the laws that direct how punishment should be handed down on crime should be designed to deter future crimes of the same nature.
Accordingly, rehabilitation of criminal offenders can be said to be one of the methods that the utilitarian form of punishment emphasizes as a way of administering justice. Rehabilitation mainly aims at reforming an offender rather than punish so that they may be integrated back into the society. Equally, jailing as a form of incapacitation of an offender also falls under the utilitarian form of punishment because, by removal of the offender’s ability to commit offenses from the society, future crimes of the same nature may be prevented.
Preferred rationale/form of punishment
First, it is important to appreciate the fact that in certain instances, the commission of a criminal act may not be planned such that one will be deemed unswervingly guilty of the act. Offenses such as murder may happen due to provocation such that one may end up taking another one’s life in the heat of passion. Similarly, minors and persons of unsound mind are not spared either when it comes to the commission of a crime. However, such a category of persons may be deemed to a special group because of the underlying issues such as the lack of understanding of the consequence that a particular act may lead to.
From the examples mentioned above, a retributive form of punishment will certainly administer justice in the wrong way because of its backward-looking nature of offering proportionate punishment. Without taking into consideration factors that may have led to a crime, any form of punishment handed down to an individual may be excessive or uncalled for.
By the same token, criminals are presumed to be ordinary persons such that one factor changed that status, for instance, one may seek to steal due to poverty. Alternatively, another person may engage in crime as an act of revenge for a wrongful act done on them. Under such circumstances, the form of punishment handed down should be directed towards enabling such a person reform and be integrated back into the society so as to continue developing.
Notably, even under religious laws, the principle of forgiveness is widely discussed. In this respect, retributive punishment does not give individuals any opportunity to reform or even afford the wrong persons with the chance to deliberate on pardoning the person after serving their sentence as an act of compassion.
Hence, I will argue that the utilitarian form of punishment stands out as the best-placed method for punishing offenders because it not only takes into considerations of the underlying factors that may have led to a crime but it also focuses on handing down the punishment that in the long run will stem out goodness from a person. Goralski (2015) is of the same views by asserting that models of punishment that presume criminals to be bad people who deserve harsh punishments should be relatively be avoided because this leads to vengeance rather than reform.
Philosophy of Imprisonment
Borrowing meaning from the Law Dictionary (2016), imprisonment means restraining or putting an individual in confinement such that his liberty is subjugated. In this respect, imprisonment can be said to be a tool of crime deterrence going by the fact that is limits one’s movement and activities.
Arguably, the rationale for imprisonment as a form of punishment can be said to have stemmed from the belief that by subjecting a person to a place whereby their rights and freedoms were limited to a minimal level, then people would be careful not to commit crime because of the hardships that one would experience while in prison.
However, one can say that imprisonment only acts as a form of banishment of an individual. This is to say, prisons only act as means of putting an individual away from his ordinary life such that he is disassociated with the society. Hence, for imprisonment to reform an individual, an extra effort must be provided a failure to which the individual will only lack his privileges which may not be enough to deter future crimes.
Stuart Greenstreet (2017) argues that imprisonment does not serve its purpose of preventing crime. In his discourse, “Prison Doesn’t work” he asserts that the reason why prisoners even after being released are likely to commit crime is based on the fact that by putting together equal minded people that share similar criminal mindsets, the likelihood of having a worse crime is high because of the perception that jail is used as a way of punishing them.
Also, innocent persons may be subjected to imprisonment such that if they are not helped in having a changed mentality of a criminal justice system, then the likelihood of prisons remodeling such a person by just having them locked up can be equaled to a time bomb.
From a personal point of view, imprisonment only serves to confine people to a place whereby they can no longer commit the crime, but it is not effective in deterring the occurrence of future crimes. Imprisonment should be supported with other special programs that help prisoners have a different perception of prisons and importantly assist them on being integrated back to the society.
Restorative Justice
Restorative Justice largely emphasizes on the usage of alternative measures to solve crimes and social disorders. According to Walgrave (2013) restorative justice embraces the ideology that wrongdoers should be empowered to rehabilitate, reform and be reconciled back to the community. Seemingly, any form of crime causes harmto another as such focusing on repairing the harm in perceived to be vital in assisting the warring parties. United Nation’s office on drug and crime asserts that restorative justice seeks to put things right between conflicting parties while at the same time preventing occurrences of similar misconducts through the use of corrective strategies and programs.
Nevertheless, this concept has been purported as being too ambitious in a bid to restore ties between the victims of crime and the offenders, especially when compared with traditional models which emphasizes on the punishment of offenders for any crimes committed. However, restorative justice must be applauded for promoting values such as forgiveness, dialogue, accountability and fraternity (Arlene Gadreault, 2015). Evidently, the main aim of restorative justice is to give both the offenders and victims of crime a bigger role to play within the criminal justice system so as to yield positive outcomes and at the same time offer the necessary assistance to both parties.
Notably, restorative justice can be regarded as an alternative dispute resolution mechanism, which uses less punitive channels often in the form of diversion programs under various state agencies that are meant to aid the involved parties to resolve the previous conflict. Accordingly, restorative justice affords offenders with the opportunity to take responsibility for the harm or injuries caused to victims and consequently, make adequate compensation.
Bentham project
Foremost, Bentham being a prominent law scholar that developed various law theories such as the utilitarian school of thought theory, it is then important to have a deep understanding of the message that he intended to put across through the use of his works. Thus, the Bentham project can be said to largely focus on Bentham’s writings and how they can be made relevant to the modern world’s activities.
The Bentham Project also can be said to focus on how to formulate basic codes of conduct within the society. For instance, the utilitarian theory of punishment can be said to follow the guidelines of Bentham’s utilitarian theory.
Lastly, this project is of great significance especially for learners to get to know the foundation and originality of various concepts that are applicable in today’s world. Having a deep understanding of the origin of things or events is important in assisting one to comprehend their significance in the society.
References
Arlene Gadreault (2015, January 7th). The Limits of Restorative Justice, School of Criminology,
Does the number of emotionally hurting persons in the world keep on increasing daily? Different people including churches are having difficulty adapting to the fact that people need counseling to the point that some churches are not seeing the need to conduct counseling within the church. Christian counseling is different from secular counseling, in the sense that most Christian counselors use the biblical perspective to guide people since the Bible is viewed as the basis of truth[1]. Christian or biblical counselors usually seek to know the areas that an individual has been disobedient to Christian principles and scripture to try to assist the person to get back to submit to God. The counselors can direct back the people by using their standards to measure their goals and the lifestyles of those being advised. Research shows that Christian counselors understand the Bible concepts especially practical wisdom on marriage, human suffering and marriage hence use them to guide people on what they should do and to make the accountable[2].
2.0 Origins of Christian Counseling
Christian Counseling began slightly in 1968 although the counseling had not been officially documented since it existed from the 1st century and in the New Testament. In the early years of 1900’s Christians believed and agreed that the Bible was the cornerstone to restore human lives. Jay E. Adams is believed to be the founder of biblical counseling movement. Psychologist O. Hobart Mowrer (1907-1982) is however considered as the founding father of counseling movement. This is however confusing since most of Mowrer contributions was towards the field of modern psychology[3]. Mowrer had expertise in learning theory and became the first discoverer of anxiety and fear. Mowrer believed that illness related to the mind was based on genetic or biological aspects of individuals. He further believed that mental illness was a result of confessed sins that haunted an own guilt.
According to him, there was no satisfaction in the manner in which Christians or churches addressed sins in practice and theology especially through the justification of doctrine[4]. He founded therapy groups that he structured around concepts of confession, integrity, and confrontation and started teaching theories of mental health and sin to other people including seminary students. Jay E. Adams is one of the students agreed with the modern psychiatry in the sense that churches were overlooking the fact that sin could be a possible aspect in causing emotional distress. Mowrer psychiatry gave the church the authority and right to counsel those hurting, however, it was viewed by Adam as a fight against the church since it was replacing Christian faith with humanistic views and self-centered thinking[5].
David Powlison, who was Adams student, further pursued the previous ideas in his dissertation book. According to him, Adams dispute with the understanding of individual problems was outlined around knowledge system framed in explicitly theological terms. His view is that medical model defined women and men as not being responsible to God and themselves contrary to earlier set views. David also argues that Adam did not see the cure of souls being possible by using peace of mind or behaviors that are socially accepted that was stated as being enough[6].
3.0 Christian Counseling
The Christian counseling community has been engaging in discussions on what Christian counseling should be and the extent to which the Bible should be based on. Christian counseling has few basic approaches that are limited hence making it ineffective when applied to some situations. Christian counseling has brought some confusions if indeed it’s true to its objective keeping in mind that Christians may call themselves counselors or some counselors may just call themselves Christians for the sake of attracting clients. Few concepts have been used to shade some light to customers who are seeking the services of Christian counselors. This is because some individuals may require spiritual knowledge to handle their dilemmas rather than using secular perspective to advise them. Different Christians especially those who hold strong denominational, evangelical or fundamentalist beliefs would prefer counseling services from a Christian counselor[7].
This, therefore, has become a challenge because some become frustrated due to the disparity that exists today in Christian counseling. The disparities have resulted due to the existence of different types of Christian counselors including. Examples include but are not limited to: Pastors that give their advice due to their seminary education or experience; Christians with deliverance ministries; Christians therapists with family and marriage experience; Christians applying scripture concepts but do not have counseling training or skills; Christian professional counselors, social workers; Clinical Psychologists who combine secular counseling knowledge with Christian principles and secular counselors posing as Christians[8]. The different types of counselors end up frustrating those seeking to be advised by right or believing counselors. It is also difficult to monitor if those claiming to be Christian counselors are using Bible concepts when advising their clients.
Individuals seeking professional services of a counselor are usually referred by their pastors to individuals known to the pastor or have a counseling center that has the same doctrine with the pastor. Despite the try to only refer church members to Christian counselor’s challenges do occur since some counselors are already introduced to secular training or education world especially those working outside the church stings. Churches also recruit counselors due to their secular association making them continue using secular techniques instead of shifting to Christian techniques while advising their Christian clients. The approach is therefore deemed to backfire in the end because failure to use biblical perspectives will make some clients to be frustrated especially when they realize that their Christian counselors do not seem to bother holding them responsible for going against their Christian values. Most Christians seeking professional counseling would love to be corrected by being given practical examples from the Bible, failure to which they will start doubting the whole process.
4.0 The Need to Rely Solely On Scripture for Answers
Despite the discussions, if there is need to combine research and practical experience, Spiritual Revelation and Biblical knowledge when counseling questions still arise as to what extent or portion should Christian counseling depend on the different kind of knowledge. As much as Christian counseling should solely rely on Biblical perspectives, it also becomes necessary to incorporate other types of counseling to get the desired results. The counseling process should rely first on the Bible followed by spiritual revelation, secular research, and theories since each perspective are important in bringing psychological healing to the customer[9].
Counseling based on the biblical process of Salvation by Faith is the most complete and reliable and should be used fundamentally in everything done in the church. It is prudent to argue that if the process of salvation by faith is Gods way of making people whole again, then it should be used primarily in the counseling process. This, therefore, means that if biblical perspective can be used to solve psychological problems in the church, it needs to be strengthening to make it effective when used. It is also worth noting that if the Christian counseling process were based solely on biblical answers it would be readily accepted in churches and many who are not subscribed to the counseling process will be willing to incorporate the Christian counseling in most programs in the church.
5.0 Principles of Effective Biblical Counseling
The active principle of biblical counseling is developed to guide counselors on how to conduct themselves during counseling process and to handle their clients well. Different principles have been outlined:
5.1 People Need Help
The first principle is to understand that people need help. Various reasons have been described as the causes making people seek help including anxiety, stress, bitterness, and resentments, especially in marriage, churches, and families. Lack of people being taught character values and how to manage life challenges to be able to conveniently confront them also contribute the number of those seeking help. The difficulties of people’s lives have made the number of those seeking Christian counseling to increase. Understanding that people need help will help the counselor focus on the problem rather than judging the individual for seeking help[10].
5.2 Counselors Should Be Competent
The next effective principle is that counselors should be competent since the process of helping people is urgent but not a natural process. This, therefore, calls for competency on the counselor side for them to be careful so as to identify the best counseling approach to apply to their different clients. It is also important to understand that Christian counseling is not for every person especially to those who are resisting change or growth in their lives. It also certainly not applies to counselors whose motive of helping others are not genuine and are not concerned with the welfare of those being counseled. Christian counseling, therefore, is for those who have the potential of becoming skillful sensitive and knowledgeable and motivated to handle clients[11].
5.3 Counselors Need To Have a Strong Value System
The next principle is that counselors need to have a strong value system since the process of helping people can be a damaging process at times if the counselor has flaws. If the client comes to realize that the counselor is not perfect or doesn’t have a moral value it makes them frustrated and to begin doubting the process. This, therefore, calls for identification of values that are used to measure parameters of being right or wrong or to measure mediocrity and excellence. Therefore the counselor’s values can be used to measure the number of individuals who are likely to cope in future based on the help received. Having a counselor with high values plays a role in determining if the clients will be able to handle difficulties in future or will still be broken by them[12].
5.4 Counselors Not To Be Too Attached To the Clients
Christian counseling principle also calls for counselors not to be too attached to the clients or to make them dependent on the counseling process. Counselors should, therefore, maximize on making the individual use their human potential to effectively provide a lasting change to the individual. The clients should also be willing to receive help since it’s the fundamental aspect required to make the counseling process a success. Those who are defensive or resistant and not willing to receive help will make less commitment to change their ways to improve the way they live. An individual who has been manipulated, or threatened may view the counselor as being part of the plan hence may fail to open up. The counselor can only patiently wait for the person to realize despite being adamant seeking and wanting help will do a greater good in their lives[13].
5.5 Counseling Process Should Be Handled By Professionals
The counseling process should be handled by professionals who trained on how to handle their clients. This because those seeking help would love to be talking to experts who can easily identify their problems and advise them accordingly. Both the counselor and the client should trust in God keeping in minds that despite the counseling God should be left in control to guide the client further. Trusting in God form the basis of Christian counseling since clients would love to be advised based on Bible or Scripture perspective. It is also important that offering help without trusting in God equalize to secular counseling, which the client may be avoided since they directly sought Christian counseling[14].
5.6 Counselors Should Be Effective Communicators
Effective counselors should be good communicators since most counseling sessions require the counselor to carefully choose their words to avoid communicating in a manner that further hurts the client. The chosen words should inspire the client and not condemn them. The counseling duration should be limited since the counselor should watch the calendar to make the client grow and become self- reliant. The counseling process should be limited to only responding to the need of the client to prevent developing the unhealthy relationship where the client becomes dependent on the counselor regarding advice[15].
5.7 Christian Counselors Should Maintain Confidentiality
Christian counselors should maintain confidentiality by not sharing with a third party problem faced by their clients. This helps in maintaining the trust since the person shared in confidence and to avoid making them vulnerable. The counselor should also be able to exhibit the character that is being sold to the client. That is the counselor should be convincing and inspiring to the client to make them want to adopt the changes being said to them since it works to bring positive change.
5.8 Counselors Should Also Remember To Take Care of Themselves
Despite helping other people counselors should also remember to take care of themselves. This because one can be overwhelmed with their jobs to the extent that they forget their needs and start looking that they need help themselves. The counselor also need be a good listener since helping people requires one to a good listener to be in a position to evaluate and digest what is being communicated to give adequate counsel. This is because the person receiving help find it comforting when they are understood correctly and given important advice to help them confront their situation[16].
6.0 Conclusion
The number of people who are hurting emotionally keeps on increasing by the day. What is considered to be Christian counseling? Christian counseling uses biblical perspective when counseling believers. Christian counseling, therefore, is becoming necessary in churches to help Christians having difficulties in their lives. According to research Christian counseling is the best since most advice being given to clients has biblical perspectives that clients are seeking to get given the fact that they help comfort disturbed souls. Christian counselors should follow guiding principles to offer the best services to their clients. Being good communicators and listeners are paramount to make the counseling process a success.
7.1 Bibliography
David, G. Benner. Strategic pastoral counseling. A short-term structured model. Second edition. 2012. pg. 1-41.
Everett, L. Worthington Jr., Eric, L. Johnson, Joshua, N. Hook and Jamie, D. Aten. Evidence-based practices for Christian counseling and psychotherapy.2017. 1-141.
Randolph K. Sanders (ed). Christian Counseling Ethics A Handbook for PsychologistsTherapists and Pastors. Second Edition. 2017. 7-120.
Richard E. Butman. Qualifications of the Christian Mental Health Professional. 2012. Pg. 1-28.
Sanders, Randolph K., ed. Embracing our Ethical Mandate. Christian Counseling Ethics.Westmont: InterVarsity Press. Accessed June 11, 2017. ProQuest Ebook Central 2012. pg. 8-26.
Siang-Yang Tan. Counseling and Psychotherapy. A Christian perspective. 2017. pg. 1-178.
Tim, Clinton and Gary, Sibcy. Christian Counseling, Interpersonal Neurobiology, and the Future. Journal of Psychology & Theology. 2012. Vol.40. No. 2, 141-145.
[1] Tim, Clinton, and Gary, Sibcy, Christian Counseling, Interpersonal Neurobiology, and the Future, Journal ofPsychology &Theology. 2012, Vol.40, No. 2, 141-143.
[9] Sanders, Randolph K., ed, Embracing our Ethical Mandate. Christian Counseling Ethics. Westmont, InterVarsity Press. Accessed June 11, 2017. ProQuest Ebook Central. 2012, Pg, 20-26.
[10] Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling and Psychotherapy. A Christian perspective. 2017, pg, 158-178.
[11] Richard E, Butman, Qualifications of the Christian Mental Health Professional. 2012, Pg. 1-28.
[12] Randolph K. Sanders (ed), Christian Counseling Ethics A Handbook for Psychologists, Therapists, and Pastors. Second Edition. 2017, 7-120.
[13] Everett, L, Worthington Jr, Eric, L. Johnson, Joshua, N. Hook and Jamie, D. Aten, Evidence-based practices forchristian counseling and psychotherapy, 2017, 21-41.
Since the Future of Nursing recommendations was released by the Institute of Medicine (IOM), nurses have worked hard to ensure that they fit into each one of them. For instance, nurses strive to obtain the right academic qualifications from institutions of higher learning to enable them to perform their roles effectively (Reinhard and Hassmiller, 2015). Personally, I see myself fitting into recommendation 4, recommendation 5, and recommendation 6 documented by the Institute of Medicine.
The IOM recommends that nursing practice in the United States can be transformed by increasing the number of nurses who graduate with baccalaureate degrees to 80 percent by the year 2020. According to the IOM, relevant accrediting bodies should work in collaboration with academic nurse leaders, employers, as well as public and private funders to ensure that student nurses obtain the right academic qualifications that can enable them to deliver quality care to diverse populations.
This means that the number of student nurses who are enrolled in baccalaureate degrees should increase for the fourth IOM recommendation to be implemented successfully (The Institute of Medicine, 2010). Since I am preparing to graduate with a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) degree in a few years to come, I am confident that I perfectly fit into the IOM Future of Nursing recommendation four.
I will effectively apply the knowledge and skills that I will acquire from my baccalaureate degree to deliver quality healthcare to diverse populations. In this manner, I believe that I will form part of nurses who graduate with baccalaureate degrees by the year 2020 as I continue to deliver care that is intended to improve nursing practice in the United States.
The IOM also gives a recommendation that the number of nurses who possess doctorate degrees should double by 2020 for nursing practice in the United States to be improved. Under recommendation five, the IOM directs academic nurses to collaborate with both public and private funders as well as with accrediting bodies to increase the number of student nurses who are enrolled into and who graduate with doctorate degrees (AnneMarie, 2016; & The Institute of Medicine, 2010).
Since I am planning to be enrolled in a Master’s program once I complete my undergraduate degree, and into a doctorate degree program thereafter, I believe that I will fit into the IOM Future of Nursing recommendation five. From the doctorate degree program, I will acquire advanced nursing knowledge that I will apply to carry out nursing research for an improved nursing practice. I, therefore, believe that I will form part of nurses who possess doctorate qualifications by 2020.
The IOM recommends that nursing institutions should engage in long-term learning for nursing practice in the United States to be improved. Under recommendation six, healthcare organizations, accrediting bodies, and educators are required to join hands in ensuring that student nurses, as well as graduate nurses, engage in prolonged learning with the aim of acquiring competencies that will enable them to deliver quality care to patients from different backgrounds (The Institute of Medicine, 2010; & AnneMarie, 2016).
Personally, I undertake numerous training that is related to nursing care even as I strive to achieve higher academic qualifications. For this reason, I have been able to obtain relevant knowledge and skills that I intend to apply in delivering quality care to patients in future. Since I currently engage in lifelong learning, I perfectly see myself fitting into the IOM Future of Nursing recommendation six.
Part 2
Increasing my level of education will positively affect how I compete in the current job market. According to McHugh and Lake (2011), today’s health care organizations are keen to hire nurses who possess relevant clinical nursing expertise because this is critical to health care quality. For this reason, only nurses who possess relevant nursing knowledge and skills can effectively compete in the current job market.
Individual nurse education has been identified as one of the factors that help to increase clinical nursing expertise (McHugh and Lake, 2011). In this regard, nurses who obtain high levels of education are believed to be in a better position to compete in the job market than those who do not. By increasing my level of education, I believe that I will possess the right clinical expertise that will enable me to compete favorably in the current job market.
Increasing my level of education will greatly change my role in the future of nursing. As Black, Balneaves, Garossino, Puyat, and Qian (2015) explain, future nurses are expected to engage in nursing research in order to generate data that can be used to promote evidence-based practice. Knowledge of how nursing research should be conducted is best acquired through nursing education.
This is because instructors normally teach nurses on how they can use evidence obtained from research to inform evidence-based practice. In addition, through nursing education, nurses are able to learn the best approaches to research that will generate important information that can be used to improve health care delivery (Ketefian and Redman, 2015). Therefore, increasing my level of education will enable me to perform both nursing practice roles as well as research roles.
References
AnneMarie, P. (2016). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health…how are we doing? Nursing Critical Care, 11(3):4.
Black, A. T., Balneaves, L. G. Garossino, C., Puyat, J. H. & Qian, H. (2015). Promoting evidence-based practice through a research training program for point-of-care clinicians. The Journal of Nursing Administration, 45(1): 14-20.
Ketefian, S. & Redman, R. W. (2015). A critical examination of the developments in nursing doctoral education in the United States. Revista Latino-American de Enfermagem, 23(3): 363-371.
McHugh, M. D. & Lake, E. (2011). Understanding clinical expertise: Nurse Education, experience, and the hospital context. Research in Nursing & Health, 33(4): 276-287.
Reinhard, S. & Hassmiller, S. (2015). The future of nursing: Transforming health care. The AARP International Journal, retrieved from https://www.journal.aarpinternational.org/
The Institute of Medicine. (2010). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Agriculture has been an imperative supporter of the GDP of Bhutan since the absolute starting point. Its commitment to the GDP has been recorded at 38% in the year 1995 with 85% of the populace subordinate upon it; the commitment was 35.9% in the year 2010. In spite of the fact that the commitment of agribusiness declined from 55 % (1985) to 33% (2013) of GDP, despite everything it stays as a prevailing element in the economy of the nation. However, in the most recent decade, the commitment of agribusiness has tumbled to 16.7% of GDP. The issue of accomplishing independence lies intensely on the shoulder of this part as, without improvement of the essential segment, the advancement of the auxiliary area and thusly, advancement of the country can’t be accomplished to the full. The decline of roughly half in 10 years flags that this area requires quick consideration. This examination goes for distinguishing how, the foundation of particular Financial Institutions for Agriculture like; ‘National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development’ (NABARD, India), can help in building up this segment. This examination endeavors to take shape the part that such particular organizations need to play, since they can give tweaked answers for various necessities in the agrarian segment of a nation, as structures, plans, plans, approaches and methodology, and open the ranchers to the present day innovations and techniques for horticulture.
Introduction
A standout amongst the most imperative parts of the lives of individuals and the financial state of a country is agribusiness. For millenniums, rural exercises have overwhelmed the lives of individuals around the world. In the cutting edge world, horticulture has turned out to be more logical and Innovation situated pointed towards accomplishing higher generation, and in this way, financing farming assumes a crucial part today. This is the place Agricultural Micro finance ends up plainly significant. It assumes an exceedingly critical part in empowering horticultural exercises in many countries. In 2019, there were more than 74 million micro finance borrowers around the world, and the aggregate credit portfolio was about $38 billion USD. On the off chance that we consider Bhutan, horticulture remains the second biggest supporter of GDP quickly after hydro power era. In the meantime, the present rupee emergency in Bhutan has demonstrated that one of the zones in which Bhutan needs to gain a quick and relentless ground is accomplishing self-manageability in nourishment generation. In 2011, Bhutan imported about Nu.286 million worth of vegetables and Nu.1.1 billion worth of rice2, and there couldn’t be a superior time for the country to truly respect the conceivable methods for enhancing its farming generation and diminish its reliance on imports, which channels profitable and hard earned remote cash adding up to Rs.4 billion in the year 2011. The nation has a potential for building up its agribusiness further. One method for achieving this is to guarantee the accessibility of simple credit to the agriculturists in the nation.
This paper endeavors to comprehend the present circumstance of farming micro credit in Bhutan and tries to comprehend the conceivable advantages of extending the extent of rural micro credit and auxiliary administrations through particular foundations in the nation.
Literature Behind Research on Agriculture in Bhutan
On the off chance that we consider micro finance, or all the more particularly microcredit, which concentrates on stretching out little credits to ranchers and was made well known by Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, is a moderately new idea. The advancement and extension of micro finance on the planet can be clarified by the accompanying outline:
2010 – 2012
2012-2014
2014-2015
2015-2017
Expansion
Increase
Commercialization
Transformation
As portrayed by Srnec K., et al. (2018), micro finance establishments around the globe experienced approximately four phases of advancement to be specific, the mid 80’s the place numerous MFIs (micro finance organizations) had a superior rate of return than banks. In the mid 90’s, the place a couple of MFIs started taking care of every one of their costs, a couple of best MFIs started to pull in noteworthy business subsidizing, and were never again restricted to a little gathering of scattered organizations, making it a quickly developing industry and today where MFIs have changed from being casual micro finance foundations to more formal establishments.
The very structure of micro finance foundations has experienced a critical change as of late. Micro finance organizations, as well as standard banks the world over have started to understand the estimation of micro finance and are starting to take into account this division. As indicated by a report distributed by Infosys4, just 28 percent of the aggregate requests for micro finance administrations were secured by the MFIs all inclusive by 2010. The World Bank assessed a micro finance necessity of USD 300 billion out of 2010.
However, in spite of being the centerpiece of provincial and agrarian advancement programs in numerous nations for quite a while, micro finance has likewise pulled in impressive feedback, and many individuals question the adequacy of micro finance establishments. As clarified by Hendrayadi, Irfan, et al, in their paper ‘What is ‘Afflict ing’ the Agricultural Micro Finance Model?’, the objective of the country fund was to advance agrarian improvement through focused medications intended to increment provincial loaning while at the same time decreasing the expenses and dangers to moneylenders. The ultimate result of this approach neglected to achieve its Objective. Initially, sponsored loan costs did not permit provincial back organizations (RFIs) to take care of their expenses. Besides, financed credit extremely regularly focused on the wrong items, which prompted expansion underway wasteful aspects. Therefore, the quantity of nonperforming advances expanded drastically. In the 1970s, horticultural loaning represented more than 30 percent of all World Bank loaning; in any case, by 2010, this number dipped to 10 percent. The measure of Official Development Assistance (ODA) given by OECD nations to rural ventures dropped impressively also. Subsequently, the genuine net guide to farming in the 1990s dropped to a 35 percent of its level in the 1980s.
Another trouble confronted by micro finance establishments around the world was that, in spite of being organizations of simple credit, the loan fees charged by these foundations was still very high. As clarified by Bateman (2011), in the beginning of micro finance organizations, higher rates were important to take care of the high operational expenses of giving small advances to poor people, yet that financing costs would fall in view of rivalry. This contention had some legitimacy at first. In any case, loan costs have not fallen as much as anticipated, and in a few nations (quite Mexico), they have stayed high. To some degree, this was a direct result of the accentuation on.
The business show, with MFIs, now required producing high monetary prizes for their directors (pay rates, rewards) and proprietors/investors (profits and capital increases). Different impediments that hampered the development of micro finance was an absence of legitimate insurance from agriculturists as they were frequently excessively poor, making it impossible to keep resources as guarantee, however as clarified by Llanto (2017), endeavor credits, including advances to poor people (for the most part ladies), did not really require the customary land guarantee as security. MFIs have loaned to resource fewer people and have effectively recuperated the credits. However, nothing from what was just mentioned issues are without arrangement. Bateman (2011) and Llanto (2017) have worried on the requirement for hearty money related control to guarantee that neighborhood budgetary establishments act in a way helpful for maintainable nearby financial improvement and to building and holding neighborhood social capital, yet with a notice that exorbitant direction may suffocate creative micro finance rehearses. Llanto (2017), Hendrayadi, Irfan, et al. what’s more, Miller (2011), have likewise worried on broadening credit portfolios by micro finance foundations, which can be expert by consolidating horticultural advances with different sorts of advances, for example, urban advances, lodging advances, investment funds, protection, etc. Bateman (2011) has even recommended that nearby smaller scale reserve funds ought to be considered as an initial phase in the collection of capital. One of the components unfavourable to establishments occupied with rural loaning as recommended by Llanto (2017) is inordinate government intercession and government endowments, which may not be manageable over the long haul. This is one region where Bhutan ought to be particularly watchful about. We will next consider the micro finance situation in Bhutan and attempt to comprehend its present patterns and future prospects.
Research METHODOLOGY and Design
Planning reasonable strategy and choice of logical instruments is imperative for an important investigation of any exploration issues. This segment is dedicated to the announcement of the technique, which incorporates accumulation of information, examining the system, strategy for investigation and apparatuses of examination.
Gathering of Data
Both essential and optional information has been utilized for the present investigation. An observational study was made among the chosen recipients to get to know the advance sum got, used and reimbursed. On the premise of the data assembled, a very much outlined pre-tried meeting plan was drafted and utilized as a part of the field review to gather the essential information (Vide Appendix-I). Before undertaking the principal review, a provisional meeting plan was arranged and regulated to 25 recipients so as to test the legitimacy of the meeting plan. It encouraged tresearchhe expulsion of the none–response and undesirable inquiries and the altered last timetable in view of this were readied.
The chose recipients were reached face to face and the goals of the examination were obviously disclosed to them and their co-operation was guaranteed. The insights with respect to the general attributes of the example recipients, their families, salary, use, and investment funds identifying with the general targets of the investigation were gathered from the specimen recipients through the immediate individual meeting technique.
Auxiliary wellsprings of information identifying with the readiness to benefit from advances, the number of advances endorsed, advance sums were gathered from the distributed and unpublished reports and records of the BDFCL.
Inspecting Procedure
Bhutan Development Finance Corporation Limited has 22 branches in every one of the twenty locales in Bhutan. With the end goal of gathering essential information from the recipients and recuperation execution, all the 22 branches were incorporated for the present investigation. Out of 22 branches, a sum of 300 borrowers under different plans was chosen indiscriminately for the investigation.
Time Line
Keeping in perspective of the goals of the investigation, 300 example recipients were stratified into two classes specifically, the individuals who have occupied with non-modern exercises and others taking part in mechanical exercises. Out of 300 specimen recipients, 182 (66.67 for each penny) recipients were going to non-mechanical gathering and the staying 118 (39.33 for every penny) fell under the modern gathering.
Objectives of Study:
i. To comprehend the difficulties and openings that specific money related foundations taking into account the farming part have.
ii. To assess the condition of agrarian micro finance in Bhutan.
iii. To propose strategies that may be valuable in assist improvement of such specific monetary establishments.
Research Design: Descriptive research
Information Sources: Optional information gathered from different electronic sources, for example, sites, articles and daily paper diaries accessible on the web, and so forth.
Land reaches out of the examination:
Impediments: The investing+ation is restricted by the way that there has is just a single budgetary organization taking into account rural micro finance in Bhutan. Hence, the measure of data accessible here is very restricted, and not very many examinations have been led identified with this decision, and this has constrained the extent of our investigation.
Research Questions:
Why couldn’t farmers grab the funds in order to approach the require GDP prescribed by the Governmental Agencies of Agricultural Development fields and lands?
What are the major correlations and stats of Agricultural Development Land Authority of Bhutan regarding the production of crops from the year 2014 to 2017?
What are the aspects of agricultural development regarding farmers low budget criteria and how can governmental agencies handle this crisis?
What are the GDP targets regarding farmers infrastructure development at agricultural lands?
The state of Specialized Micro Finance Institutions in Bhutan
As we consider micro finance establishments in Bhutan, we understand that it is still in an incipient stage. Country credit in Bhutan was begun in 1980. It was ordered for Bank of Bhutan (BOB) to loan 44% of its portfolio in country credit, be that as it may, it loaned under 1% of its portfolio. The reasons were ranchers’ failure to meet the security and assurance prerequisite of the BOB and RICB (Royal Insurance Corporation of Bhutan). At that point, the provincial loaning program was depended to Food Corporation of Bhutan in 1980. Nourishment Corporation of Bhutan acquired cash at 14% enthusiasm from BOB and RICB and re-loaned the sum at 6% to 10% to agriculturists. This program kept going just two years. The program was then moved to Royal Monetary Authority (the national bank of Bhutan). As BOB and RICB were discovered one-sided towards general exchange, transport, and land, it was felt important to build up a different budgetary establishment to give advances to mechanical and farming related exercises. In this unique circumstance, with the marking of Royal Charter (RC) on January 31, 1988, Bhutan Development Finance Corporation Ltd. (BDFC) (which is right now known as Bhutan Development Bank Limited (BDBL)) was built up. At that point, the rustic credit program was given over to BDFC. From that point, forward BDFC (now, BDBL) has been executing Agricultural Credit in Bhutan.
Other casual methods for loaning to ranchers likewise exist in Bhutan as portrayed by Hussein (2019, for example, moneylenders, who exist inadequately in a few districts and charge an enthusiasm of 3%-5% and well to do families and people who additionally advance out to poor villagers now and again. Different banks incorporate devout foundations that loan at a higher rate of 15%-25%, and semi-formal loaning organizations, for example, the National Women Association of Bhutan (NWAB), which goes for giving gifted preparing and gathering loaning to ladies in country zones. The organization depends on the Grameen Bank model and advances are progressed with an enthusiasm of 14%.
In any case, regardless of consistent endeavors by the administration, rustic cr alter confronts real hindrances, as portrayed by Pathak (2010). Factors, for example, the scattered low populace, uneven territory, low foundation advancement, low advance recuperation rate, high hazard and high overhead cost have reared the effect on the improvement of micro finance establishments in country zones of Bhutan. In 2010, under 44% of ranchers approached credit from balance uncial establishments, (this was out of an expected 87,500 homestead families), and this figure was impressively lower for littler agriculturists at around 10%. The nonattendance of other committed micro finance foundations and the peak smaller scale fund body in Bhutan being BDBL alone has altogether controlled the extent of micro finance in the nation. From the customers’ point of view, few loaning establishments bringing about constrained access to advances, long and antagonistic obtaining techniques, contract pre requisites notwithstanding for little credits, high financing cost structure, and so forth., has postured huge hardships in getting advances.
On the off chance that we consider ventures made by money related establishments in Bhutan by segments, agribusiness comes in eighth, with add up to speculation by monetary divisions (as advances), which is a pitiful 1.39% of aggregate venture (adding up to Nu. 36,005.02 million) in the year 2010 (from the Statistical Yearbook k of Bhutan 2011, National Statistics Bureau , RGoB). Taking a gander at the pattern over a time of years, the rate of assets given to agribusiness regarding credits by budgetary organizations has really diminished from 1.92% of every 2016 to 1.39% out of 2010.
In fact, of the ten biggest parts which represented more than 99% of the credits, the best five were individual, Building and Construction, Manufacturing, Trade and business, Service and
Personal Loans for Agriculture
The above diagram obviously demonstrates the carelessness and lack of concern towards farming part loaning by monetary establishments. In the year 2010, an aggregate of Nu.499.45 million was put by money related foundations in the agribusiness part. In the event that we consider the expansion in interest in agribusiness area, there has scarcely been an increment of more than 105% contrasted with five years prior (somewhat finished twofold). In the examination, individual credits have expanded about five times and, vehicle advances (for overwhelming vehicles) have expanded more than six times (Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2011, RGoB).
Of the credits given to horticulture division in 2010, 99.10% originated from BDBL. Just a little rate of the advances was given by Bank of Bhutan (0.60%) and T-Bank (0.30%). The loaning rate in horticulture segment (for advances rendered by budgetary organizations) was static at 13% in the vicinity of 2018 and 2010 (for a reimbursement time of 10 years), though in the ‘other traveler vehicles’ part, financing costs really descended from 14% (for reimbursement in 5 years) in 2018 to 12% (for reimbursement in 7 years) in 2010 (Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2011, RGoB).
A current overview directed in Samtse has demonstrated that micro finance customers in Bhutan apparently obtained Nu.30, 000 to Nu.50, 000, and paid an enthusiasm of 5 to 10 percent to Bhutanese moneylenders or, 3 to 10 percent to Indian moneylenders. This is really a little sum, and shouldn’t require security by any stretch of the imagination. Such credits can be effectively given by specific micro finance organizations and can truly go far in helping the agriculturists in the midst of need.
While the improvements in the rural segment have made expansion openings, there are imperatives that can hamper the capacity of agriculturists; particularly that dominant part of Bhutanese ranchers are poor and peripheral agriculturists. The absence of sufficient framework, restricted access to data, credit, and different resources (land, water, and mechanical know-how), can seriously compel the extent of broadening activities.
These boundaries, data holes, and limit confinements display an open door, as well as a requirement for specialists’ concerned (Ministries, offices, contributors) to offer help and help to manufacture the limit with respect to expert poor broadening exercises.
Expansion activities require a multi-segment approach including numerous particular venture ranges. Approach and institutional condition, water system and seepage, science and innovation, and country framework are only a couple of illustrations. Every one of these speculations won’t originated from the general population part.
For long haul arranging, government needs to make the empowering conditions for the private segment to give sources of info and administrations to ranchers important for enhancement; (FDIs), be that as it may, the administration needs to contribute to enlarge the extent of research establishments to cover rising issues of broadening, enhance the scientific capacities of agriculturists to blend the expansion opportunity, and build up the productive learning and data frameworks.
Besides wage era, broadening will, in many cases, increment work for the country poor. For instance, von Braun evaluates that because of broadening to send out vegetable creation in Guatemala, work expanded by 45 percent on members’ homesteads. It is normal that the advantages of expanded business openings are significant as well as are circulated over a wide range of the economy and in this way are to a substantial degree “expert poor.”
Ali and Abedullah (2012) exhibited the potential for country work era emerging from enhancement out of oats to high-esteem products, for example, vegetables, by looking at the work force in the two frameworks. Considerable business openings are created in seed and seedling generation, accuracy arrives planning, and the water system, collecting, cleaning, evaluating, and bundling of high-esteem crops.
It was evaluated that a one-hectare move of grain to vegetables in one season creates over one year round all day business (that is, the contrast amongst oats and vegetables was more than 220 working days for each hectare). The off-cultivate work impact of comparative greatness was anticipated through the extension in the farming business exercises. Joshi and Gulati et al. (2012) likewise detailed comparative outcomes.
Because of developing customer interest for exceedingly bundled and prepared horticultural items, enhancement ordinarily includes the development far from customary wares (requiring negligible auxiliary preparing) toward higher esteem products (requiring critical preparing and dealing with). Moreover, the new creation frameworks are regularly more concentrated and produce interest for a more prominent amount and an assortment of homestead inputs.
Since high-esteem crops, contrasted with oats, are all the more emphatically interlinked with different divisions of the economy regarding giving their yields and accepting contributions from these segments, there is a more grounded multiplier impact of the underlying increment in pay. For instance, it was evaluated that a unit increment in beginning salary in oats has a multiplier impact of two, while comparable increment in vegetables will create a multiplier impact of three (Ali and Abedullah 2012).
With the move far from subsistence harvests to more beneficial money crops like vegetables, comes back to arrive, work, manure, and water are fundamentally higher. The level of change in cultivating pay in the long and medium term will rely on the idea of relative changes in wage and use and in addition the degree of home utilization.
Country family units in Bhutan procuring the greater part of their salary from the generation of exportable merchandise will encounter a net welfare increase paying little mind to their utilization crate, while the effect for those families that are net customers might be vague, contingent upon the impact on nearby nourishment costs. Regardless, broadening will bring about more prominent nourishment security at the family unit level.
Given the above situation, the Royal Government should play a dynamic part in instigating manageable development by empowering economical generation frameworks in accordance with the accessible assets of agriculturists and micro environments of soil and land, catching on the regular focal points Bhutan has over its neighbors like India and Bangladesh. To advance the star poor enhancement with high-esteem crops, speculation ought to be coordinated to diminish yield change by creating stress-tolerant innovations and safe cultivars of these harvests and to enhance Homestead to showcase linkages.
In addition, approach advancements ought to animate market components to grow little ranchers’ association with the end goal of defeating the economies of scale issue and enhancing their entrance to business sectors and data. Preparing on little scale horticultural business improvement can likewise empower smallholder ranchers and landless destitute individuals to change.
With suitable arrangements, some of these speculations may originate from the private area, while venture identified with the foundation of makers’ association to enhance their capacity in investigating expansion openings and meeting the exploration needs identified with these open doors should originate from the general population private division joint effort. Delgado (a researcher at Agricultural field) perceived that there are three prerequisites for strategy level consolation of expansion.
In the first place, enhancement methodologies need to target staple sustenance generation and showcasing issues to such an extent that approaches accommodating more prominent nourishment security are composed and executed. Increments in high-esteem creation are not prone to happen unless nourishment security dangers are impressively brought down, especially with regards to Bhutan where at present a high offer of assets is given to subsistence sustenance generation.
Second, the exchange costs related with the stream of assets and items amongst areas and districts should be diminished. This is so picked up from the creation of surplus can stream to ranges delivering non-excess, which thusly are required to help the generation of surpluses.
Third, there is a need to advance non-conventional fares as a wellspring of remote trade to abroad markets. For example, comparative fare things along the lines of mushrooms, Cordyceps, apples, and oranges should be additionally broadened. This can be accomplished by putting resources into investigating, expansion, preparing and data frameworks of high-esteem crops, natural creation, restorative and sweet-smelling plants, and by creating the quality foundation. It requires supported endeavors to beat institutional and infrastructural limitations.
A further essential part of the administration is guaranteeing that ranchers have the ability to benefit from the innovative and market openings display in the outer condition. This type of maker strengthening requires sound instruction and expansion frameworks at all levels, and in addition meditation when important to conquer any boundaries to the stream of the market and specialized data and learning.
Decentralization (DYTs, GYTs) has made an instrument to encourage the procedure yet additionally fortifying of such bodies as far as overhauling know-how, and mindfulness is considered essential. The significance of giving the agriculturists a choice of choices for their generation ought to be perceived inside the projects and subprojects of vocal arranging.
The up and coming national nourishment security arrangements archive need to address both the nationwide generation and the neighborhood accessibility of sustenance in ranges with low efficiency as well as zones more suited for the creation of tradable products, for instance.
Wellbeing and sanitation must be elevated to completely abuse the welfare impacts of commercialization and expansion, and strategy should concentrate on preparing and work versatility programs on the grounds that “all things considered, the minimum diversifiable gift is most likely uneducated work” (Quiroz and Valdés 2011, p. 297).
Furthermore, ultimately, proper exchange arrangement is basic, particularly given that the nation has started participation to joining the World Trade Organization (WTO), openings are progressively fixing to the abuse of developing markets in remote nations.
Bhutan-Export Strategy, 2010, UNCTAD/WTO.Bhutan Trade Statistics Up To 30th June 2012, Department of Revenue & Customs, Royal Government of Bhutan.
Delgado, C. (2012) “Agricultural diversification and export promotion in sub-Saharan Africa.” Food policy, volume 34, number 7, pages 243-279.
Delgado, C. and A. Siamwalla (2012). “Rural economy and farm income diversification in developing countries.” In; Proceedings of the 23rd international conference of agricultural economists, August 2014, Sacramento, California. Pages 129-198.
Druk Seed Corporation, (2012) Strategic Options, Ministry of Agriculture, Paro.
Export Oriented Vegetable Production Proposal, (date unknown) Ministry of Agriculture.
Forest Resource Development Section, “Non-Wood Forestry Products, A Report on Thimphu & Paro Dzongkhags”.
Identification Mission for Agricultural Production Project/IPM Phase II Draft Report November 2013.
Joshi, P.K., A. Gulati, P. S. Birthal and L. Tewari. (2012). “Agriculture Diversification in South Asia: Patterns, Determinants, and Policy Implications”. RGoB, MoA-NCAP-IFPRI Workshop on “Agricultural Diversification in South Asia”. Paro, Bhutan. November 21-23, 2012. (paper and slide presentation) Policy, Strategies and Plans, October 2011. Engineering Division, DOA (9th Five Year Plan 2012-2017),.
Quiroz, J., and A. Valdés. (2015). “Agricultural diversification and policy reform”. Food Policy. Volume 44, Number 9, Pages 267-295
Renewable Natural Resources statistics, 2010, Ministry of Agriculture.
Renewable Natural Resources statistics, 2015, Ministry of Agriculture.
Renewable Natural Resources Section, 2012-2017, Ninth Five Year Plan Document, Ministry of Agriculture.
Statistical Year Book of Bhujtan, (2014). National Statistical Bureau, Royal Government of Bhutan.
Tobgay, Sonam (2015). “Small Farmers and Food Systems in Bhutan”. A paper presented at the FAO Symposium on Agricultural Commercialization and the Small Farmer, Rome.von Braun, J. (2015). “Agricultural Commercialization: Impacts on Income and Nutrition and Implications for Policy”.
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Terrorism is founded on carefully planned structures. This paper intends to discuss terrorist organizations by developing a case study of Aum Shinrikyo terrorist group.
Origin of Aum Shinrikyo
Aum Shinrikyo refers to a doomsday cult whose origin is in Japan. The cult was formed by Shoko Asahara in the year 1984 (Ingram, 2017). Aum Shinrikyo earned international infamy after carrying out a deadly attack on Tokyo subway in the year 1995. Furthermore, in 1994 Aum Shinrikyo was also involved in a small sarin attack (Ingram, 2017). However, initially, Aum Shinrikyo conducted its activities in secret and never confessed. Shoko Asahara, the founder of Aum Shinkyo, bought a signal in Russia, which he directed to Japan and uses it in broadcasting his singing and persisting on his blamelessness (Ingram, 2017).
In 2007 Aum Shinrikyo was divided into two groups a group known as Aleph and a group called “Hikari no Wa” (Ingram, 2017). Thus, Aum Shinkyo became designated by many countries as a terrorist association. Among the countries is Japan and North Korea. For instance, in Korea, the commission in charge of examining public security made a public announcement in 2015 in the month of January that the group Aleph along with “Hikari no Wa” group is both branches of religion, which is considered as dangerous (Ingram, 2017). The commission also added that it would continue surveillance on the two groups for three subsequent years.
As a logistical set-up, Aum Shinkyo inspired and is still inspiring acts of terrorism globally. Notably, Aleph which is one of the groups of Aum Shinrikyo is a system based on syncretism belief (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). Aleph draws upon an idiosyncratic understanding of elements by Shoko Asahara regarding ancient Indian Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, and Hinduism. The main icon of worship was taken to be Shiva (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). Aleph also incorporates millennialism ideas, which it borrows from the Bible’s Revelation book (Orsini, 2015).
Aleph also borrows from Yoga and Nostradamus writings (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). Aum Shinrikyo’s group Aleph was founded by Chizuo Matsumoto who alleged that he was seeking to reinstate original Buddhism. Thus, in the year 1992, Chizuo Matsumoto started calling himself Shoko Asahara, which became his name (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014).
In the same year 1992, Shoko Asahara was able to publish an introductory book where he declared himself to be “Christ.” Furthermore, in the book Shoko Asahara refers to himself as the only master who is fully enlightened and identifies with “God’s Lamb” (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014).
Command structure of Aum Shinrikyo
Aum Shinrikyo is known to apply precise methodologies. Furthermore, Aum Shinrikyo has a prearranged study of doctrine which is in harmony with a particular system of learning. For a follower of Aum Shinrikyo to reach another stage, it is expected that the member successfully passes a given exam (Orsini, 2015). The practice of meditation is combined with hypothetical studies.
However, Shoko Asahara emphasized to his followers that hypothetical studies cannot serve any purpose when practical experience is not achieved. Additionally, Shoko Asahara also advised members of Aum Shinrikyo never to try explaining anything if they could not mostly experience it (Orsini, 2015).
Aum Shinrikyo’s followers were grouped into two. The first group was lay practitioners. The lay practitioners are Aum Shin rik yo’s members who live together with their families (Orsini, 2015). A second group is a group of members who lived a lifestyle that is ascetic. In most cases, the second group included individuals who usually live as a group (Orsini, 2015). For any follower to earn the status of an attained member, it was an obligation for the member to meet precise conditions so as to influence senior members to recognize that the member has reached a state of higher spirituality (Orsini, 2015).
For instance, in the stage of Kundalini Yoga a member was required to give a demonstration regarding his or her ability in showing abridged oxygen consumption, modification of electromagnetic activities of the brain, and reduced rate of the heart, which was to be proven by being measured using a corresponding equipment (Richards, 2014). When a member demonstrated all the changes described above, then he or she was considered having entered a higher state referred as Samadhi (Richards, 2014). Thus, a member who has attained Samadhi state was given permission to educate other members.
The purported mission of Shoko Asahara was taking all the sins that people in the world have committed. Shoko Asahara claimed that he had the ability to transfer spiritual power to Aum Shinrikyo’s members (Richards, 2014). Additionally, Shoko Asahara claimed he would ultimately cleanse Aum Shinrikyo’s members’ sins by taking them away. Consequently, scholars view Aum Shinrikyo as an outcome from Japanese Buddhism. The view by scholars influenced how Aum Shinrikyo’s definition and view of itself. Notably, Shoko Asahara made an outline of a prophecy on doomsday that integrated the “World War III” to be prompted by the United States (Richards, 2014).
Leadership of Aum Shinrikyo
Shoko Asahara is known to be the historical leader of Aum Shinrikyo. Furthermore, Shoko Asahara was also the chief of senior operations for Aum Shinrikyo (Sageman, 2014). Shoko Asahara came from a Japanese family that was poor. After realizing a personal enlightenment in religion, Shoko Asahara formed Aum Shinrikyo, a religious cult (Sageman, 2014).
Shoko Asahara had recruited almost 10,000 followers to Aum Shinrikyo during the 1990s. Notably, Shoko Asahara dreamt of being an emperor in Japan. Thus, Shoko Asahara assumed the role of interim commander of Aum Shinrikyo (Sageman, 2014).
Shoko Asahara tried to register Aum Shinrikyo with Japan’s government based on the law of religious corporations known as “Shukyo-hojin-Ho” in 1989 (Shapiro, 2013). The registration was to include benefits such as privileges regarding taxation, rights of owning property as Aum Shinrikyo organization, along with protection from interference by the state and other external bodies (Shapiro, 2013).
Initially, the Japanese government denied permission of registration to Aum Shinrikyo citing a string of complaints raised by families with members practicing the Shukkesha (Shapiro, 2013). Shukkesha refers to a practice where members are demanded to sever all the ties they have with family and ensure they cease communication (Shapiro, 2013).
Aum Shinrikyo gave a response to the Japanese government’s rejection by holding public demonstrations, holding lawsuits, and starting legal appeals to counter the government’s decision. Consequently, in the month of August in the year 1989 Aum Shinrikyo was approved of a legal status (Zúquete, 2015).
Thus, Aum Shinrikyo started a new trend in 1989 of greeting every difficulty that comes their way with vigorous denials accompanied by lawsuits (Zúquete, 2015). Notably, in May of 1989 many parents had hired a lawyer from Yokohama known as Sakamoto Tsutsumi. However, Sakamoto uncovered claims that were faulty arguing that tests had been carried out in Kyoto University revealing that he had a unique DNA in his blood (Zúquete, 2015).
Afterward, Aum Shinrikyo started the practice of blood initiation, which was assumed to increase the spiritual power of an individual though no tests were run (Shapiro, 2013). Later, Sakamoto, his wife along with infant son disappeared. An Aum badge was found indicating that Aum Shinrikyo was involved with the disappearance, but no direct evidence was available to link the group.
Thus, Aum Shinrikyo embraced the accusations as an opportunity of getting publicity. Asahara professed the need for political action in saving the world thus, launching “Shinrito” political party which translates to “Supreme Truth Party” (Shapiro, 2013).
Motivation of Aum Shinrikyo
Aum Shinrikyo is motivated by both general reasons and particular motives. For instance, Tomomitsu Niimi attacked a VX victim at 7 am on the 12th of December in 1994 after Shoko Asahara reported of suspecting the victim of being a spy (Zúquete, 2015). The victim was murdered by being sprinkled on the neck for being a nerve agent. Aum Shinrikyo capitalizes on visions of the millennium along with predictions of the apocalypse in framing its doctrine. Consequently, Aum Shinrikyo is highly prejudiced by Nostradamus work. Notably, Nostradamus work provides a cornerstone to Aum Shinrikyo’s teachings.
Markedly, the followers of Aum Shinrikyo actively recruit students along with professionals working in the medicine field, field of science, field of computers, the engineering field, along with other areas, which are technical. Therefore, the charisma by Shoko Asahara and his messages appeared to have more appeal to a majority of people who felt estranged by the modern society, the secular society and the conformist features of the Society of Japan (Zúquete, 2015).
At the crest of Aum Shinrikyo, it is approximated to be worth over $1.5 billion. Notably, having enormous financial resources, Aum Shinrikyo is motivated to invest its capital in high-technology, laboratories for “state-of-the-art,” and funding Aum’s research. Thus, Aum Shinrikyo can circumvent restrictions, which are associated with large laboratories for corporate research.
Additionally, for Aum Shinrikyo to raise funds, they collect money from donations, followers tithe, and selling of sacred materials. Aum Shinrikyo also conducts seminars along with courses regarding the teachings of the cult where it charges all individuals who are participating in the sessions (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). Furthermore, Aum Shinrikyo diversifies its enterprises through running a string of hotels in Tokyo and a firm for manufacturing computers that assembles and sells computers within Japan using parts traded in from Taiwan.
Aum Shinrikyo is also motivated by the support it gets from a Japanese mafia known as the Yakuza, who provide the group with an agreement for marketing illegal drugs manufactured by Aum Shinrikyo. Aum Shinrikyo is also motivated by cooperation given by community leaders through engaging in greenmail practice, which involves extorting money from community leaders (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014).
Aum Shinrikyo extorts money from community leaders through threatening them about establishing Aum Shinrikwo’s branch office or an Aum Shinrikwo’s school in the local community in question. Consequently, Aum Shinrikyo also aims at gaining leverage by engaging in extortion, acts of coercion, engaging in theft along with murder as a way of raising money for the group.
Goals of Aum Shinrikyo
The primary goal of Aum Shinrikyo is to defend the ancient faith by promoting worldwide operations that endorse theologies collected from diverse sources. Furthermore, Aum Shinrikyo also operates on a goal of collapsing dictatorship from western countries and institutions within the Middle East. According to Shoko Asahara, Aum Shinrikyo has the goal of uniting all doctrines and establishing, forcefully a desperate need of the society adhering to rules given by the original Caliphs (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014).
For instance, in his religious decree, Shoko Asahara talks of individuals duty globally being leading a holy life through cleaning one’s sins based on the doctrine of Aum Shinrikyo, with Shoko Asahara as the self-proclaimed “Christ”. Furthermore, in the book Shoko Asahara refers to himself as the only master who is fully enlightened and identifies with “God’s Lamb” (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014).
The ideology of Aum Shinrikyo is based on an idiosyncratic understanding of elements by Shoko Asahara regarding ancient Indian Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, and Hinduism. The main icon of worship was taken to be Shiva (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). Aleph one of the groups of Aum Shinrikyo also incorporates millennialism ideas, which it borrows from the Bible’s Revelation book (Orsini, 2015).
Furthermore, Aleph also borrows from Yoga and Nostradamus writings (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). The ideology is manifested by Tomomitsu Niimi’s willingness to attack and murder a VX victim at 7 am on the 12th of December in 1994 after Shoko Asahara reported of suspecting the victim of being a spy.
Even though most doctrines disagree with almost all thoughts of Shoko Asahara, Aum Shinrikyo is rooted in earning a status (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014). For instance, the doctrine of Aum Shinrikyo dictates that in order for any follower to earn the status of an attained member, it is the obligation that member to meet precise conditions so as to influence senior members to recognize that the member has attained a state of higher spirituality (Orsini, 2015).
In one of the stages known as Kundalini Yoga a member was required to give a demonstration regarding his or her ability in showing abridged oxygen consumption, modification of electromagnetic activities of the brain, and reduced rate of the heart, which was to be proven by being measured using a corresponding equipment (Richards, 2014).
Threat posed by Aum Shinrikyo
Aum Shinrikyo poses a number of threats. According to an annual report by the department of state in the United States regarding global terrorism, Aum Shinrikyo is a great threat as it has evolved. Aum Shinrikyo has evolved leading to its current dispersion in the Middle East. The two groups Aleph and a group known as “Hikari no Wa”, which are operationally self-governing affiliates of Aum Shinrikyo are developing to be increasingly aggressive (Kearns, Conlon & Young, 2014).
Furthermore, the affiliates of Aum Shinrikyo in the Middle East use the instability of their regions to their advantage. Moreover, affiliates of Aum Shinrikyo tend to be financially sovereign from the central leadership of Aum Shinrikyo. Notably, affiliates of Aum Shinrikyo raise funds to run their operations from illegal activities such as extorting money from community leaders, acts of coercion, engaging in theft along with murder-kidnapping people and requesting for ransom or fraud of credit cards.
Aum Shinrikyo is also highly active in Japan according to the department of the state of the United States. Compared to all affiliates Aum Shinrikyo in Aleph is the greatest threat to the United States. The head of Aleph in Japan was appointed in 2013 to be the deputy leader of the entire system of Aum Shinrikyo globally (Finn & Momani, 2017). Furthermore, in 2013, acts of terrorism were influenced by sectarian reasons, which present a major threat.
It was also revealed that there was the resurgence in the activities conducted by Iranian security forces along with Iranian intelligence, as the two institutions were linked to primarily supporting Iran for its Assad administration in Syria. Iran also was revealed to have allies in Japan, known as “Hikari no Wa”. “Hikari no Wa” is a renowned terrorist group known for its high-level illegal activities and affiliation to Aum Shinrikyo.
Policies of combating Aum Shinrikyo
There are various policies of combating Aum Shinrikyo. Notably, Aum Shinrikyo is no longer hiding when performing its operations. At the moment Aum Shinrikyo controls its operations mainly from Japan. Thus, America is faced with a great challenge regarding its lifestyle. Aum Shinrikyo constantly fights against the United States with the aim of creating a global caliphate. Consequently, it has been globally recognized that there is need to acknowledge the terrorism problem intensity, and the magnitude required in terms of effort for combating the problem (Eid, 2014).
One of the policies of combating the problem of terrorism is having coordinated regional counterinsurgency operation. Markedly, this policy involves robust efforts of stabilization and combination of diplomatic efforts, political attempts, security endeavors, and informational attempts. The second policy is to end the brutality that averts regional cohorts from fighting Aum Shinrikyo, thus creating space or energy for Aum Shinrikyo to make recruitments and execute its operations.
The third policy is a unification of the private sector with the government in an effort of fighting Aum Shinrikyo. The fourth policy is creating strong partnerships locally as a way of ensuring the stability of governments (Eid, 2014). Notably, a majority of countries have developed less responsiveness to terrorism while others have been overpowered by terrorism through terrorists acquiring and staying on their land.
The main aim of having partnerships is to ensure that Aum Shinrikyo will not reemerge after it has been defeated. The fifth policy is analyzing the position held by key players who notably are within the majority world of Buddhism, Muslims, and Hinduism (Eid, 2014). For instance, partnering with Russia requires careful diplomatic engagement as its presence of forces within Aum Shinrikwo’s territories develops a challenge.
Conclusion
Terrorism is a global problem. For years the problem of terrorism has been shifting from one continent to another. Consequently, it has been established that terrorism is founded on carefully planned structures. Thus, this paper has discussed terrorism foundations by developing a case study of Aum Shinrikyo terrorist group. Aum Shinrikyo is known for dominating its operations within Japan along with the Middle East.
The paper above has revealed that initially, Aum Shinrikyo was a logistical set-up that aimed at defending the ancient faith by promoting worldwide operations that endorse theologies collected from diverse sources. Furthermore, it has come out clearly through the paper above that there are two separate groups of Aum Shinrikyo terrorist group. A group is known as Aleph and a group known as “Hikari no Wa”.
However, the paper has also revealed that Aum Shinrikyo cannot be termed as an organization rather Aum Shinrikyo refers to a doomsday cult whose origin is in Japan. Furthermore, the paper has revealed that activities of Aum Shinrikyo are motivated by both general reasons and specific motives. Thus, Aum Shinrikyo tends to engage in illegal acts as a way of gaining leverage. The illegal acts include engaging in extortion, acts of coercion, engaging in theft along with murder, as a way of raising money for the group.
Finn, M., & Momani, B. (2017). Building foundations for the comparative study of state and non-state terrorism. Critical Studies On Terrorism, 1-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2017.1287753.
Ingram, H. (2017). The Strategic Logic of the “Linkage-Based” Approach to Combating Militant Islamist Propaganda: Conceptual and Empirical Foundations. Terrorism And Counter-Terrorism Studies. http://dx.doi.org/10.19165/2017.1.06
Orsini, A. (2015). Are Terrorists Courageous? Micro-Sociology of Extreme Left Terrorism. Studies In Conflict & Terrorism, 38(3), 179-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1057610x.2014.987593
Shapiro, S. (2013). The Intellectual Foundations of Jewish National Terrorism: Avraham Stern and the Lehi. Terrorism And Political Violence, 25(4), 606-620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2013.814502
Zúquete, J. (2015). Martin A. Miller.The Foundations of Modern Terrorism: State, Society and the Dynamics of Political Violence. Terrorism And Political Violence, 27(4), 786-788. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1068094
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Disparities in Health Outcomes Between India and China
Disparities in Health Outcomes Between India and China
Disparities in Health Outcomes Between India and China
Introduction
There are significant health disparities between India and China as well as within their populations. At the end of World War I, health outcomes of both China and India were almost comparable. However, the health system of China improved more tremendously than that of India roughly thirty years after the war. The health progress in India thirty years ago is surprisingly better than that of China despite the fact that India is still one of the countries of the world whose economy is highly impacted by the problem of food insecurity (Yip and Mahal, 2008). Ideally, India and China have had varied experiences in health outcomes in the last 50 years
Variations in Health Outcomes between China and India
In the last 50 years, China and India have experienced significant differences in life expectancy rates as well as in rates of parasitic and infectious diseases. The most important measure of life expectancy is infant mortality, while the measure of infectious disease burden is adjustments in life years among the population (Bardhan, 2008). Since the early 1970s, India has been experiencing lower life expectancy, as evidenced by higher infant mortality rates, than China (Kanjilal, Mazumdar, Mukherjee and Rahman, 2010).
By the year 2000, the rate of deaths among children aged five years and below was 46 percent in India and only 8 percent in China. These are deaths that resulted from children who are born if they are underweight (Bardhan, 2008). According to Yip and Mahal (2008), the burden of infectious diseases in India is higher than that of China. Considering these variations, the health care systems of both India and China can only perform effectively if appropriate actions are taken to improve health outcomes about life expectancy and burden of parasitic and infectious diseases.
Reasons Behind the Health Outcome Disparities Between India and China
The two leading causes of health outcome disparities between India and China are variations in health literacy and implementation of public health policies. According to Yip and Mahal (2008), India has been experiencing low life expectancy over the years because of limited health literacy among its population. Yip and Mahal (2008) further assert that the health literacy level in India at the moment is far much lower than it was in China more than ten years ago.
Due to limited health literacy among Indian population, families cannot implement basic health promotion strategies such as proper nutrition and home hygiene practices. The overall impact is an increased burden of infectious diseases coupled with high infant mortality rates in the country (Ma and Neeraj, 2008).
Furthermore, the Chinese government is more committed than the Indian government at funding public health projects that are aimed at improving health outcomes of its population. Over the past fifty years, life expectancy in China has been increasing rapidly from approximately 39 percent to about 68 percent (Tang, Meng, Chen, Bekedam, Evana, and Whitehead, 2008). This has occurred due to the effort made by the Chinese government to support the implementation of public health policies.
The most recognizable initiative that was widely supported by the government is the Health China 2020, which was meant to address the problem of social inequality in health care and to improve the Chinese health care (Tang et al., 2008). Conversely, India is suffering from inadequate public health support accompanied by significant disparities in the country’s health care system.
Consequently, poor implementation of public health policies in India is attributed to the higher mortality rates and burden of infectious diseases in India than in China (Mukherjee, Haddad and Narayana, 2011). Despite these differences, health outcomes of both India and China are greatly impacted by social and health care disparities in the two countries (Balarajan, Selvaraj, and Subramanian, 2011; & World Health Organization, 2005).
Comparison of Health Outcomes in Kerala and India
Kerala state is located in India towards the southern regions of the country. Surprisingly, the health outcomes of Kerala state are better than those of other parts of India, and this is evidenced by variations in both health and social indicators. As Mukherjee, Haddad and Narayana, (2011) explain, Kerala has experienced high life expectancy rates as well as reduced burden of infectious diseases in the last half century. Kerala became a “model India State” because of exhibiting a demographic health pattern that matches those of developed countries like the United States.
The main reasons for improved health outcomes in Kerala are educational equality, increased access to primary health care, and effective implementation of public health policies (Mukherjee, Haddad and Narayana, 2011). Educational equality in Kerala state contributes to an increase in health care literacy among the state’s population.
Furthermore, effective implementation of public health policies in the region has greatly improved the quality of care offered by health care organizations, and this translates into high life expectancy rates and reduced burden of infectious diseases (Mukherjee, Haddad and Narayana, 2011).
Conclusion
India and China are among countries of the world that are currently experiencing almost similar rates of economic growth. However, the two nations have experienced different health outcomes in the last fifty years. The main reasons behind variations in health outcomes between China and India are differences in health literacy levels and implementation of health care policy between the two countries. Although Kerala is a state in India, its health outcomes differ considerably from the rest of India.
References
Balarajan, Y., Selvaraj, S. & Subramanian, S. V. (2011). Health care and equity in India. Lancet, 377(9764): 505-515.
Kanjilal, B., Mazumdar, P., Mukherjee, M. & Rahman, M. (2010). Nutritional status of children in India: Household socio-economic condition as the contextual determinant. International Journal for Equity in Health, 9(1): 19-31.
Ma, S. & Neeraj, S. (2008). A comparison of the health systems in China and India. Santa Monice, CA: RAND Corporation.
Mukherjee, S., Haddad, S. & Narayana, D. (2011). Social class related inequalities in household health expenditure and economic burden: Evidence from Kerala, South India. International Journal for Equity in Health, 10(1):1-13.
Tang, S., Meng, Q., Chen, L., Bekedam, H., Evana, T. & Whitehead, M. (2008). Tackling the challenges to health equity in China. Lancet, 372(9648): 1493-1501.
Explain the five factors that influence the adoption and diffusion of an innovation
According to Karakaya, Hidalgo, & Nuur, (2014), the adoption and diffusion of innovation is impacted by the cultural, socioeconomic, legal and technological factors. Individual variables also come into play like the demographics, and psychological. The term diffusion from a marketers’ perspective refers to the possibility that the identified customer segment will be able to accept a new or modified product and service that is being delivered to them.
Contrariwise, the term adoption focuses on the rate that the customers will accept the product and service. The process of diffusion and adoption of innovation is dynamic as it alters from one product and service to another (p. 393).
There are five factors that influence the process of adoption and diffusion of innovation; they are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. Relative advantage refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be better than a similar existing product or service by the users. The greater the level of perceived value, the higher the rate of adoption.
The relative advantage of a product can result from a lower price, accessibility and enhancement of the features of the product or services. The 4P’s of marketing play an important part in the relative advantage when it comes to innovation adoption price, place, promotion, but most customers concentrate on the productive-based advantages (Oldenburg & Glanz, 2008, p. 314).
An example of relative advantage that has managed to penetrate different parts of the globe is the ATM teller machines that are slowly replacing the bank teller counters. The introduction of the ATM teller machines reduced the long queues in the banking halls in different places of the globe.
Compatibility of the innovation
The second aspect is the compatibility that focuses on how closely the product and service does relate to the past experiences, values, culture and the needs of the potential adopters. The greater the compatibility to factors that the customer can relate to the higher the rate of adoption and vice versa. Incessant and dynamic innovations have a higher compatibility level than the discontinuous innovations when it comes to the diffusion and adoption as more customers can relate with them (Robinson, 2009, p. 2).
A good example is the introduction of fast food restaurants in Asia and Africa took a longer period to record higher returns when compared to the Europeans. The reason being that most of the people grew up eating traditional foods and the culture in the two continents encouraged home cooked meals shared by the entire family.
The third factor is a complexity that focuses on the ease of comprehension, purchase and use of the product and service. When customers understand the importance of the innovation and ways to use it, the level of adoption increases than in areas where they need to acquire new skills and knowledge to operate it. In the adoption of innovation, the complexity of technology often does act as a hurdle to its diffusion.
The notion of complexity when it comes to technology is based on the age group, the youths are more tech savvy when compared to the older generations, hence have a higher adoption rate (Ballard, 2015). A good example is the mobile phone industry, there are two models the complex one and the simpler one for texting, calling and sending SMS.
The fourth factor is trialability, which focuses on the rate at which the innovation is experimented with on a limited basis, increases its rate of diffusion. The notion of tried and tested in various products does appeal to the end customer and endear the innovation to them. Providing the customers with free samples, test-runs, and demos increases their confidence in the product, hence increasing the adoption rate. When it comes to electronic products the introduction of warranty and guaranty does increase the diffusion rate of the customers. An innovation that is trialable has minimal risk and has a high rate of diffusion among the customers (Karakaya et al., 2014, p. 395).
The final aspect is observability, the easier it is for people to see the result of the innovation the greater the likelihood for them to adopt it. Individuals are more attuned to accept things that they can see. It does reduce their rate of uncertainty instilling confidence in the innovation. New innovations that are likely to be diffused at a greater rate have the following properties in them they are tangible, social visible; benefits can easily be viewed within a short period of time. Observability does stimulate peer discussion, which in the end does propagate the diffusion of the innovation to target market (Robinson, 2009, p.2).
Question 4
What are the differences between organizational climate and culture?
Based on Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, (2013), organizational climate refers to the perceptions that are shared by the employees with respect to the practices, procedures and policies that guide their daily routines. On the other hand, organizational culture does refer to the shared orientations that glue the organization together based on beliefs, norms, values, and assumptions. They tend to shape the behaviour of the employees when they are working within their operations (p.381).
Secondly, organizational climate is centred on the micro image of the organization while organizational culture concerned with the macro vision of the organization. The macro aspect of culture is centred on the fact that the behaviour is ingrained in employees and is quite difficult to alter unlike organizational climate. Culture refers to the personality of the organization and does unite the members. The micro organizational aspect is centred on the way that the individuals within experience the culture of the organization and it does change quite frequently (Agafonovas & Alonderiene, 2013).
Thirdly, there are four types of organizational culture and climate. In organizational culture we have clan, market oriented, adhocracy and hierarchical culture while in the organizational climate, we have rule, goal, innovation, and people oriented. Fourthly, the management and external forces on the other hand the organizational culture is rarely altered can easily alter organizational climate and it is influenced by all the employees within the organization (Differencebetween.com, 2014).
Organizational culture is more static as it takes a longer time for it to be altered while organizational climate is dynamic and changes more rapidly. Lastly, organizational climate can easily be measured unlike the organization culture that is more based on peoples’ behaviour and perceptions making it difficult to quantify. Organizational culture has its roots in the fields of sociology and anthropology while organizational climate focuses on the psychology sector. On the culture perspective, it does focus on stories, rituals, and physical artefacts while climate focuses on the factors that influence behaviour (Differencebetween.com, 2014).
Discuss five climate factors that influence innovation.
The five climate factors that influence innovations are risk-taking, freedom and autonomy, ideal time and support, challenge and involvement and trust and openness. Risk taking refers to engaging in activities that have a lot of uncertainties with respect to the expected outcome. Innovation and risk are synonymous in the organizational climate. Organizations that are risk takers have a higher chance of investing in progressive unlike risk averse organizations. Risk averse climate often does stall innovation and turns organizations into followers of organizations that have adopted the climate of risk (Bolton, Mehran, & Shapiro, 2011, p.456).
Risk is influenced by a number of factors that are conscious, affective and subconscious. The conscious factors are based on manageability, proximity, severity of the impact to the organization and the society. On the other hand, subconscious factors are heuristics in nature and involve availability, representatives, lure of choice et cetera. Lastly, affective factors focus on the intelligence, fatalism and optimism bias (Crenshaw & Yoder-Wise, 2013, p. 26).
The second aspect is freedom and autonomy, which does focus on the creating a climate that gives the employees in the organization the independence to come up with innovations. The employees have the creative freedom to exploit the resources that are within the organization to come up with new driven products and services. In the spirit of freedom, the management often does create policies that make the innovative process flexible as long as it is in line with the goals and objectives of the organization (Acemoglu, Akcigit, & Celik, 2014).
The third factor focuses on ideal time and support from the organization. An innovative climate often does begin from top management where the employees are given full control of the resources that they need to come up with creative products and services. The organizational structure is often decentralized, hence creating a seamless flow of communication, policies and procedures (Acemoglu et al., 2014).
On the time perspective, most of the procedures are integrated to ensure that there is an easy coordination within the organization that is channelled to facilitate the research and development department. The support also does come from external partners like suppliers, investors, and higher institutions of learning among others. The entrance of partners does provide the organization with financial and academic knowledge that plays an integral role in shaping the innovations that will lead to the creation of new products and services (Zennouche, Zhang, & Wang, 2014).
The fourth factor focuses on challenge and involvement, innovation process does face a large number of hurdles that arise from both the internal and external climate. The internal challenges often deal with limited finances that often do incapacitate the progress of innovation. Innovative climate does require a continuous flow of innovation to ensure that the employees in an organization can formulate products and services.
The second challenge is constant failures in the innovative process that does demoralize the employees in the creation of innovative products and services. Another perspective is that the challenges that individuals face can easily create an innovative climate. Challenges trigger human beings to think analytically in ways they can resolve them resulting in the creation of creative and innovative products (Zennouche et al., 2014). The laptops for example were created to enable human beings to deal with the portability challenges posed by the computers.
On the other hand, the involvement factor does focus on the interpersonal exchange between the employees in the organization. The employees work together to foster an amicable and creative climate that does foster innovation. The employees are willing to share their knowledge and skills in different departments to foster the creation of innovative products that will enhance the competitive advantage of the organization (Axelsson & Sardari, 2011, p. 31).
A good example is the Apple Incorporation; the company has created a climate that enables the employees to willingly share their ideas, hence the increase in the number of innovative technological products coming from the organization.
The last aspect deals with trust and openness that refers to the environment where the employees know each other and have developed a deep relationship. A trust environment goes further to inspire the employees to willingly share their intellectual property with their fellow employees. Additionally, the environment enables the employees to formulate clear, distinctive strategies that are vital in chartering the innovative process (Henry, 2001, p. 35).
Moreover, it does enable the formulation of a common long-term goal that inspires the creation of innovative products and services within the organization. An open climate enables the members in the organization, especially top management to accept the failures that arise in the creation of innovative products and services. The acceptance encourages the employees to overcome their failures and create progressive products (Henry, 2001, p.35).
REFERENCE
Acemoglu, D., Akcigit, U. and Celik, M.A. (2014). Young, restles and creative: Openness to disruption and creative innovations (No. w19894). National Bureau of Economic Research
Agafonovas, A. and Alonderiene, R., 2013. Value creation in innovations crowdsourcing: example of creative agencies.
Axelsson, P., and Sardari, N. (2011). A framework to assess organizational creative climate. Division of management of organizational Renewal and entrepreneurship.
Ballard, J. A. 2015. Decoding the workplace: 50 keys to understanding people in organizations. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Bolton, P., Mehran, H., and Shapiro, J. 2011. Executive compensation and risk taking. FRB of New York Staff Report, (456).
Crenshaw, J. T., and Yoder-Wise, P.S. 2013. Creating an Environment for innovation: <i> The Risk- Taking Leadership Competency<i>. Nurse Leader, 11(1), pp. 24-27.
Henry, J., 2001. Creativity and perception in management. Sage.
Karakaya, E., Hidalago A. and Nuur, C., 2014. Diffusion of eco-innovations: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 33, pp. 392-399
Oldenburg, B., and Glanz, K. 2008. Diffusion of innovation. Health behaviour and health education, 4, pp. 313-333.
Robinson, L., (2009). Changeology. A summary of Diffusion of Innovations. Creative Commons Attrribution- Noncommercial. Australia.
Scheider, B., Erhart, M.G., and Macey, W. H. 2013. Organizational climate and culture. Annual review of psychology, 64, pp. 361-388.
Zennouche, M., Zhang, J., and Wang, B. (2014). Factors influencing innovation at individual, group and organisational levels: a content analysis. International Journal of Information System and Change Management, 7(1), pp.23-42.
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What is Luke’s presentation of the role of spirit baptism in achieving God’s plan of salvation?
Salvation is enshrouded in baptism which takes two forms water and Spirit baptism. Spirit baptism does provide one with an opportunity to let go of their sinful nature and transition into a righteous nature. Most Christians comprehend one form of baptism that is water baptism.
The proposal seeks to focus on the Spirit baptism and its role in salvation. In the book of Luke 3:16, John the Baptist said that he was going to baptize them with water, but the one who will come after him will baptize them with the Holy Spirit and fire. The one who he was referring to was Jesus Christ.
The book of Acts chapter 2 delves in depth in elucidating the baptism by the Holy Spirit, and its impact on the people who experienced it. In Acts 2:2-4, the disciples were the first people in masses to be baptized by the Holy spirit. There was a noise that came from the sky that sounded like a strong wind blowing, and it filled the entire house.
The disciples saw what looked like tongues of fire that spread and touched everyone in the room and they were filled with the Holy Spirit. The immediate effect according to Acts 2:4 is that they began to speak in other languages that they were not familiar with before.
Therefore, in the act of baptism by the Holy Spirit Jesus is the baptizer while the medium is the Holy Spirit. This point is further elaborated in Acts 2:38, where Peter states that everyone should turn away from their sins and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. The baptism will lead to the forgiveness of sins and will provide them with an opportunity to receive God’s gift that is the Holy Spirit.
The verse has different interpretations based on what Peter told the people. Some scholars believe that baptism comes after the forgiveness of sins while others believe that the verse means that their sins were already forgiven and he was employing them to be baptized.
What then is the role of baptism by the Holy Spirit? In Acts 2:14, Peter echoed the message of Prophet Joel who stated that in the last days God would pour His Holy Spirit that will enable people to proclaim the Lord’s message in different spheres of the world. Based on this verse the Holy Spirit will help in spreading the word of God to all people irrespective of their religious inclinations and cultures.
In the book of Luke 10:21, the Holy Spirit brings joy in the lives of Christians and enables them to comprehend the scriptures better. How does the Holy Spirit perform this role and how is it interlinked with God’s salvation plan? In Luke 10:21, it is written that Jesus was filled with the Holy Spirit and proclaimed that the Lord had shown to the unlearned what he had concealed from the wise.[1]
Does God’s plan encompass everyone on earth? In the book of Acts11:17, when the Holy Spirit descended it went to the Gentiles who were not baptized by water. An indication that God had wanted not only the Jews to come to him but also people from other nations through one way that is repentance and living by His Word.
Christians and scholars alike have sought to understand the concept of baptism and its role in Christianity and salvation. In the Book of Acts, the subject of spirit baptism is widely mentioned and based on readings from this book; it is clear that spirit baptism plays the role of remission of sins.
Based on this, it can be established that the role of spirit baptism in cleansing sins is considered an important undertaking in the lives of Christians and those who seek to convert to Christianity. The Book of Acts also speaks about the understanding of God’s words and repentance as a requirement for baptism, which to a great extent portrays baptism as playing a role ensuring that individuals repent and understand the word.
In Acts 2:38, Peter alludes that baptism is a process in which an individual decides to leave their life of sin and begin a new chapter of life, characterized by believing in Jesus Christ and his teachings.[2] About this, Luke writes about two types of baptism: baptism by water and baptism by the Holy Spirit.
In Acts 1:5, Luke talks about baptism by the Holy Spirit by recalling what Jesus said to the disciples “For John baptized you with water, but in a few days you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit.” Baptism in the Holy Spirit is differentiated from water baptism in that after baptism with the Holy Spirit, an individual receives power, following the encounter with Spirit of God (Acts 1:8).
The entire book of Acts does portray the power of the Holy Spirit after the baptism that took place in Acts 2. After the Holy Spirit descended on the disciples, they received the power to perform miracles and wonders the same way Jesus Christ performed numerous miracles in the book of Luke (Acts 5:12-42).[3]
The role of Baptism
Baptism for the remission of sins
This alludes in various instances in which baptism is mentioned in the Book of Acts and where individuals get baptized on different occasions. The verse, ‘Repent, and let every one of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins; and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Spirit’ (Acts 2:38) demonstrates that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins.
Besides showing that individuals who are baptized are forgiven, Peter in this verse further calls on individuals to repent, which essentially refers to an acknowledgment of a life of sin and the desire to have one’s sins forgiven to begin a new life.[4]
The verse Acts 2:38, has initiated a lot of discussion in Christianity. According to Dunn’s interpretation, the verse talks about a new covenant that came into existence after the repentance of sins. In the book of Luke, only Jesus Christ had the holy spirit as all the other people had not had their sins purged via spirit baptism. The day of Pentecost provided an opportunity for the believers to be filled with the holy spirit as their sins had been cleansed via the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.[5]
On the other hand, Ervin does provide a different interpretation of the verse where he breaks the relation between salvation and the gifts of the holy spirit. According to him, he does believe that the start of Christianity is limited to repentance and water baptism. The gift of the holy spirit is secondary to the Christian faith.[6]
David Petts is another Scholar who came up with a new interpretation of Acts 2:38, he does associate the spirit baptism with the missionary work. According to him forgiveness and the reception of the holy spirit are intertwined, unlike Dunn who does separate the two.
Dunn interprets the verse to mean that forgiveness of sin has to occur first before the spirit baptism takes place in a person.[7]For David Petts to support his argument, he does point out the case of Cornelius in Acts 10:43, where in faith he reached to God for forgiveness and received both forgiveness and the holy spirit.[8]
Max Turner, another scholar, does present another interpretation of the verse Acts 2:38, according to spirit baptism is part and parcel of Christianity but it was not intertwined with missionary outreach work. According to him the book of Acts does not indicate that all the Christians who received spirit baptism took part in evangelical work.
It was limited to only a select few individuals like the apostles.[9] He says that the spirit baptism takes place in an individual for a particular purpose not necessarily taking part in the apostolic activity. Based on him the spirit baptism does provide people with an opportunity to experience Jesus Christ directly. It does come into place through faith when one does accept Jesus in their lives.[10]
Based on my understanding of the verse I concur with Dunn’s interpretation of Acts 2:38. Spirit baptism is based on forgiveness of sins where one confess and through their faith in Jesus Christ they receive salvation. Despite my personal views, my research paper will aid in deeply explaining the verse as it is central in comprehension of the role of spirit baptism in salvation.
Baptism as the beginning of a new existence
Baptism is a declaration of one’s willingness to act according to the teachings of Jesus Christ. Hence the reason baptism has often been considered as a rite of initiation. According to Carlson[11], baptism can be considered a Christian initiation rite, through the introduction of an individual into Christian ways, having read the word and understood it.
A similar connotation is given in Romans 5:12-21, where Paul notes that individuals who are baptized by the spirit experience a transformation, in which their former sinful existence is negated Carlson[12] and they are inaugurated into a Christ-ruled reality or existence.
Baptism as a sign of believing in Christ
According to the Book of Acts, it is evident that spirit baptism is only for those who believe, such that baptism plays the role of ensuring that people understand God’s word. In Acts 18:8, many Corinthians who heard the word and believed were baptized; while in Acts 2:41, ‘those who gladly received his word’ after hearing Peter’s sermon were baptized.
Given that baptism is meant for those that hear the word and understand it (Acts 2:36-37), and receive its message (Acts 2:41), individuals who refuse to believe cannot be baptized.
2.4 Baptism and repentance
Repentance is a prerequisite of baptism as provided in Acts 2:38. Peter instructs ‘Repent, and let every one of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ….’ He does not simply ask them to get baptized but instead asks them to repent first, an indication that getting baptized is a major decision to turn away from sin and commit towards serving Jesus Christ.[13]
Baptism as the gateway to salvation
A controversial question that arises based on the teachings on baptism as given in the book of Acts is whether baptism is compulsory for Christians to receive salvation. This is based on Acts 2:38, where Peter calls on repentance and baptism for the forgiveness of sins. This is invariably interpreted as meaning that baptism is a prerequisite for forgiveness, hence the importance placed on baptism.
Paul was also baptized to be forgiven his sins and Ananias asking him to get baptized while calling on the name of the Lord to be redeemed can interpret it to mean that one cannot be saved if they have not been baptized. While this view is greatly supported, the bible numerously talks about the forgiveness of sins without mentioning baptism[14].
In Acts 10:43 for example, Peter says to Cornelius that everyone who believes in God will receive forgiveness. Furthermore, it was only after Cornelius, and his family believed and received the forgiveness that they were baptized (Acts 10:47-48). Cornelius was spirit baptized when he was in prison. This is an indication that the spirit baptism took place. This is an indication that salvation does precede water baptism. [15]
Role of Baptism in God’s plan for salvation
Examples of Citing the Bible
Acts 1:5
Acts1:8
Acts 2: 2-4
Acts 2:14
Acts 2: 36-37
Acts 2:41
Acts 10: 47-48
Acts 11: 15-18
Luke 3:16
Romans 5:12-21
Conclusion
Bibliography
Atkinson, William. Baptism in the spirit, Luke-Acts, and the Dunn Debate. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 2012.
Callam, Neville G. “Baptists and the Subject of Baptism.” Ecumenical Review 67, (October 2015): 334-361.
Carlson, Richard. “The Role of Baptism in Paul’s Thought.” Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 14, (July 1993):255-266.
Dunn, James D. Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A Re-examination of the New Testament Teaching on the Gift of the Spirit in relation to Pentecostalism Today. Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd; 2010.
Ekundayo, Lawrence O. “The Practice of Baptism and Its Justification in Anglican Church.”
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science 21, no. 4 (April 2016): 32-38.
Jensen, Robin M. “Baptismal Imagery in Early Christianity.” Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2012.
Petts, David. “The Baptism in the Holy Spirit: The Theological Distinctive.” Pentecostal perspectives (1998): 98-119.
Reardon, Timothy W. “Cleansing through Almsgiving in Luke-Acts: Purity, Cornelius, and
the Translation of Acts 15:9.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 78, no. 3 (July 2016): 463-482.
Schreiner, Thomas R., and Shawn D Wright. Believers Baptism. Nashville: B&H Publishing Group, 2007.
Spruce, Jim. Baptism: An important step in your life with Christ. Kansas City: Nazarene Publishing House, 2012.
[1] Lawrence O. Ekundayo, “The Practice of Baptism and Its Justification in Anglican Church.”
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science 21, no. 4 (April 2016):35.
[2] Richard Carlson, “The Role of Baptism in Paul’s Thought,” Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 14 (July 1993):255.
[3] Robin M. Jensen, Baptismal Imagery in Early Christianity (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2012), 65.
[4] Jim Spruce, Baptism: An important step in your life with Christ (Kansas City: Nazarene Publishing House, 2012), 15.
[5] William, Atkinson, Baptism in the Spirit Cambridge (The Lutterworth Press, 2012), 10.
[6] Howard, Ervin, Conversion-initiation and the Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A in the Holy Spirit (Hendrickson Publishers; 1984), 65.
[7] James, D. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A Re-examination of the New Testament Teaching on the Gift of the Spirit in relation to Pentecostalism Today (Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd; 2010), 80.
[8] David Petts, “The Baptism in the Holy Spirit: The theological Distinctive,” (Pentecostal perspectives. 1998):65.
[9] Max, Turner, Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel’s restoration and witness in, Luke-Acts (A & C Black; 1996),398.
[11] Richard, Carlson “The Role of Baptism in Paul’s Thought,” 255.
[12] Richard, Carlson “The Role of Baptism in Paul’s Thought,” 257.
[13] Thomas R. Schreiner, and Wright D. Shawn, Believers Baptism. (Nashville: B&H Publishing Group, 2007),43.
[14] Neville G. Callam, ” Baptists and the Subject of Baptism,” Ecumenical Review 67 (October 2015): 335.
[15] Timothy W. Readers, “Cleansing through Almsgiving in Luke-Acts: Purity, Cornelius, and the Translation of Acts 15:9,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 78, no. 3 (July 2016): 464.
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