Category: research design

Qualitative EITI Reporting

Qualitative EITI Report
Qualitative EITI Report

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Abstract

This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.

The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report

Introduction

The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.

On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).

ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).

EITI Background

In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.

The EITI Principles

According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).

The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.

EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).

Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations

The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:

  1. Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
  2. Strengthening public institutions.
  3. Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.

The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered.  An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).

The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting

As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include:  the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.

Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society

The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).

These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:

Identification

The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.

Agenda Setting

The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.

Public Education and Enlightenment

The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).

Agents of Social Mobilization and Change

The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.

Monitoring and Oversight

It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).

Advisory

Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.

Whistle Blowing

The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).

Observation

The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013).  In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.

Feedback

The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.

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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases

It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.

In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.

This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.

For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).

Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies

In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.

The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.

This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.

The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.

Discussion of Results

It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010).  The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).

Recommendation

Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.

Conclusion

In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.

The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.

References

Aaronson, S. A. (2011). Limited partnership: Business, government, civil society, and the public in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Public Administration & Development, 31(1), 50-63. doi:10.1002/pad.588

Calland, R., & Bentley, K. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Transparency and Accountability Initiatives: Freedom of Information. Development Policy Review, 31s69-s87. doi:10.1111/dpr.12020

Carbonnier, G., Brugger, F., & Krause, J. (2011). Global and Local Policy Responses to the Resource Trap. Global Governance, 17(2), 247-264.

Caspary, G. (2012). Practical Steps to Help Countries Overcome the Resource Curse: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Global Governance, 18(2), 171-184.

Disclosure as Governance: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and Resource Management in the Developing World. (2010). Global Environmental Politics, 10(3), 53-73.

Eigen, P. (2013). International Corruption: Organized Civil Society for Better Global Governance. Social Research, 80(4), 1287-1308.

Frynas, J. (2010). Corporate Social Responsibility and Societal Governance: Lessons from Transparency in the Oil and Gas SeWhat is Globalization? Journal of Business Ethics, 93163-179. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0559-1

Holden, W. N., & Jacobson, R. D. (2007). Mining amid armed conflict: nonferrous metals mining in the Philippines. Canadian Geographer, 51(4), 475-500. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2007.00193.x

Koch, L. C., Niesz, T., & McCarthy, H. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytical Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 57(3), 131-143.

Lehrer, M., & Delaunay, C. (2009). Multinational Enterprises and the Promotion of Civil Society: The Challenge for 21st Century Capitalism. California Management Review, 51(4), 126-147.

Magner, A. L. (2015). Drilling for Disclosure: Resource Extraction Issuer Disclosure and American Petroleum Institute v. SEC. Journal of Corporation Law, 40(2), 521-537.

Mejía Acosta, A. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Accountability and Transparency Initiatives: The Governance of Natural Resources. Development Policy Review, 31s89-s105. doi:10.1111/dpr.12021

Mouan, L. C. (2010). Exploring the potential benefits of Asian participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The case of China. Business Strategy & the Environment (John Wiley & Sons, Inc), 19(6), 367-376. doi:10.1002/bse.687

Murphy, E. M. (2012). Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers. Federal Register, 77(177), 56365-56419.

Nurse, C. (2007). Transparency in resource extraction. Accountancy, 139(1366), 38-39.

Pal, N., & Pantaleo, D. C. (2008). From Strategy to Execution: Turning Accelerated Global Change into Opportunity. Berlin: Springer.

PR, N. (2013, August 29). Caracal Energy Inc. – Caracal Listed as a Supporting Company of the EITI. PR Newswire UK Disclose.

Salazar, K. (2012). Establishment of the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee and Request for Nominees. Federal Register, 77(145), 44263-44264.

Schuler, D. A. (2012). A club theory approach to voluntary social programs: Multinational companies and the extractive industries transparency initiative. Business & Politics, 14(3), 1-24. doi:10.1515/bap-2012-0024

Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2009). Dilemmas and further debates in qualitative method. Education for Information, 27(1), 21-37.

Sovacool, B. K., & Andrews, N. (2015). Does transparency matter? Evaluating the governance impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia. Resources Policy, 45183-192. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.04.003

Topal, J., & Toledano, P. (2013). Why the Extractive Industry Should Support Mandatory Transparency: A Shared Value Approach. Business & Society Review (00453609), 118(3), 271-298. doi:10.1111/basr.12011

Walden, R. R., Jerome, R. N., & Miller, R. S. (2007). Utilizing case reports to build awareness of rare complications in critical care. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 95(1), 3-8.

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Civil Society Oversight Roles in EITI Reporting

Civil Society
Civil Society

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Abstract

This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.

The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report

Introduction

The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.

On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).

ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).

EITI Background

In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.

The EITI Principles

According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).

The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.

EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).

Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations

The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:

  1. Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
  2. Strengthening public institutions.
  3. Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.

The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered.  An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).

The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting

As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include:  the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.

Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society

The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).

These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:

Identification

The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.

Agenda Setting

The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.

Public Education and Enlightenment

The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).

Agents of Social Mobilization and Change

The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.

Monitoring and Oversight

It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).

Advisory

Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.

Whistle Blowing

The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).

Observation

The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013).  In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.

Feedback

The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.

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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases

It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.

In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.

This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.  

For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).

Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies

In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.

The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.

This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.

The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.

Discussion of Results

It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010).  The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).

Recommendation

Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.

Conclusion

In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.

The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.

References

Aaronson, S. A. (2011). Limited partnership: Business, government, civil society, and the public in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Public Administration & Development, 31(1), 50-63. doi:10.1002/pad.588

Calland, R., & Bentley, K. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Transparency and Accountability Initiatives: Freedom of Information. Development Policy Review, 31s69-s87. doi:10.1111/dpr.12020

Carbonnier, G., Brugger, F., & Krause, J. (2011). Global and Local Policy Responses to the Resource Trap. Global Governance, 17(2), 247-264.

Caspary, G. (2012). Practical Steps to Help Countries Overcome the Resource Curse: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Global Governance, 18(2), 171-184.

Disclosure as Governance: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and Resource Management in the Developing World. (2010). Global Environmental Politics, 10(3), 53-73.

Eigen, P. (2013). International Corruption: Organized Civil Society for Better Global Governance. Social Research, 80(4), 1287-1308.

Frynas, J. (2010). Corporate Social Responsibility and Societal Governance: Lessons from Transparency in the Oil and Gas SeWhat is Globalization? Journal of Business Ethics, 93163-179. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0559-1

Holden, W. N., & Jacobson, R. D. (2007). Mining amid armed conflict: nonferrous metals mining in the Philippines. Canadian Geographer, 51(4), 475-500. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2007.00193.x

Koch, L. C., Niesz, T., & McCarthy, H. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytical Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 57(3), 131-143.

Lehrer, M., & Delaunay, C. (2009). Multinational Enterprises and the Promotion of Civil Society: The Challenge for 21st Century Capitalism. California Management Review, 51(4), 126-147.

Magner, A. L. (2015). Drilling for Disclosure: Resource Extraction Issuer Disclosure and American Petroleum Institute v. SEC. Journal of Corporation Law, 40(2), 521-537.

Mejía Acosta, A. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Accountability and Transparency Initiatives: The Governance of Natural Resources. Development Policy Review, 31s89-s105. doi:10.1111/dpr.12021

Mouan, L. C. (2010). Exploring the potential benefits of Asian participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The case of China. Business Strategy & the Environment (John Wiley & Sons, Inc), 19(6), 367-376. doi:10.1002/bse.687

Murphy, E. M. (2012). Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers. Federal Register, 77(177), 56365-56419.

Nurse, C. (2007). Transparency in resource extraction. Accountancy, 139(1366), 38-39.

Pal, N., & Pantaleo, D. C. (2008). From Strategy to Execution: Turning Accelerated Global Change into Opportunity. Berlin: Springer.

PR, N. (2013, August 29). Caracal Energy Inc. – Caracal Listed as a Supporting Company of the EITI. PR Newswire UK Disclose.

Salazar, K. (2012). Establishment of the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee and Request for Nominees. Federal Register, 77(145), 44263-44264.

Schuler, D. A. (2012). A club theory approach to voluntary social programs: Multinational companies and the extractive industries transparency initiative. Business & Politics, 14(3), 1-24. doi:10.1515/bap-2012-0024

Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2009). Dilemmas and further debates in qualitative method. Education for Information, 27(1), 21-37.

Sovacool, B. K., & Andrews, N. (2015). Does transparency matter? Evaluating the governance impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia. Resources Policy, 45183-192. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.04.003

Topal, J., & Toledano, P. (2013). Why the Extractive Industry Should Support Mandatory Transparency: A Shared Value Approach. Business & Society Review (00453609), 118(3), 271-298. doi:10.1111/basr.12011

Walden, R. R., Jerome, R. N., & Miller, R. S. (2007). Utilizing case reports to build awareness of rare complications in critical care. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 95(1), 3-8.

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Human Dignity And Capital Punishment: Case Study

Human Dignity And Capital Punishment
Human Dignity And Capital Punishment

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Case Study: Human Dignity And Capital Punishment

Introduction

 Case study 2 describes human capital punishment for two Australian Citizens caught smuggling Heroin to Indonesia. Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were executed after receiving death sentence from an Indonesian court. 

Dignity refers to worth or value, therefore; human dignity refers to human worth and value.  There are various approaches of human dignity which are classified by Kirchhoffer into two categories. Category 1 refers to the understanding of human dignity that is based in belief that human value is high because they are human or they possess certain capacities that are absent in other creatures. In Category 2, human dignity understanding is based on their belief that dignity is acquired or lost through the individual own feelings or specific dignity bestowing behaviour (Dhai, 2013). This paper describes the dignity of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumaran in relation to their execution based on Kirchhoffer classification.

            Human dignity claims are mainly used to support or oppose death penalty. It has been argued that some acts such as homicide, death penalty are justified based on retributive punishment framework. Retribution involves respect for human autonomy and the decisions people make. It is also argued that death penalty is effective as it allows the relatives and friends of the victims find closure, facilitate emotional healing as they carry on with their lives (Jones, 2012).  However, is there a possibility that some victims are unfairly executed?  The main issue of significance in this case study 2 is that human life is sacred. It has inalienable dignity. In this regard, this paper explores the concepts of human dignity.  It aims at evaluating if human dignity lie in human life, in the capacity of the decisions made by human or in the societal judgement of their past behaviour (Roche, 2011).

Perspective 1A: “Human has Dignity Simply because they are Human Species”

 According to this perspective, human life is sacred. Most of the religious arguments fall into this perspective because they believe that human beings were created in the image of God.  Non-religious proponents argue that is natural to fight for survival of one’s species, thus; it human species have special value against any intrinsic value or instrumental values possessed by the other species. This indicates that human beings have inherent worth because they belong to human species (Rydberg & Pizarro, 2014).

Based on this perspective, the execution of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar in Indonesia devalued the aspects human dignity. This is because the value of human dignity is inherent is their lives and not their actions. According to religious arguments, people’s actions do not necessarily define their dignity.  It is not what people do or fail to which gives them dignity. It is the purpose of God, creator of the heaven and earth.  People’s action is shaped by circumstances they face (Zylberman, 2016).

Perspective IB “Human Beings have Inherent worth Due to their Distinctive and Special Abilities”

            This perspective interrelates with perspective IA in that all human are equal and possess inherent dignity. This perspective argues that human dignity arises from the fact that they have special distinctive attributes and special abilities. This is supported by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that human beings value is intrinsic in all members of the society (Trojan & Salfati, 2010).

This implies that humans are to live a life as predefined by the societal morals and self-consciousness. This perspective is used to promulgate the aspect of moral values in the society, failure to which the person is punished according the punishment equivalent to the value violated.  Similar to perspective IA, it argues that due to the high capacities and specific attributes possessed by human beings, then they can be rehabilitated through proper treatment and training.  This perspective is supported by the case study as Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar has reformed completely; which indicates that their execution was unjustified (Muftic & Hunt, 2012).

2 A “dignity can be acquired or lost through sense of self-worth”

This perspective understands the concepts of human dignity as some type of pride in one self and conscious sense of an individual’s worth as human being, which enables them to live a meaningful life.  The way a person view themselves impacts on their life experiences. People who lack self-worth   tend to struggle to find happiness and success.  This makes them engage in activities that deviate from the society norms, affecting their relationship with the other people.  It leads to further misery and struggle.  However, this does not reduce their human dignity because it is innate (Kirchengast, 2010).

This implies that it was important for the Indonesian society to challenge their thinking.  For example, what criteria were it used to reach to an agreement that Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were harmful people in the society? Did they have evidence on their past actions that indicated that they are extremely violent and threat to the society?  The negative attitude accorded to these Australian citizens did not make sense because their verdict was made with an assumption that these individuals cannot transform, and that they will always be in their worst behaviours which is erroneous (McCormick, 2015).

2B “Dignity can be acquired or lost through Moral or Immoral Behaviour.

This perspective focuses much on the way the society judge’s one based on their past behaviour and not by their self-worth. Some people are the society’s hero because they lived selfless lives and lived their lives in pursuit of high ideals and exemplary conduct. These include people such as Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Mother Teresa. Others may be judged as to have lost their dignity due to their violent criminal acts (Cssidy, 2012). In this case Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were engaged in criminal activities of trafficking heroin. According to the Indonesian society, substance abuse is done by people who have an intent of becoming violent and harming others. The society has negative attitudes towards these two people as they perceive them as threat. For instance, the Indonesian government to surround Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar with military security style during transfer indicated that they perceived these people’s character as extremely dangerous which is not true (Kirchhoffer, 2011).

It can be argued that the death sentence is a form of punishment that removes bad/evil people in the society; which aims at increasing survival of good species; the outcomes of this practice are futile.  An effective form of punishment should have a purpose to treat and restoration of the desired behaviour and not to kill. On the other hand, Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar determination to die  with dignity so as to prevent their parent unnecessary distress indicates that they had gained sense of self-worth, and passionate enough to ensure that their relatives reach in closure  and vindication (Mattson & Clark, 2011).

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Social Norms, Attitudes, and Other Circumstances Impact On the Aspects of Human Dignity

Proponents of death sentence argue that this practice protects the society from evil people, who inflict harm and distract the society harmony. According the social attitudes; it is the role of each and every government to protect its society from violent and heinous acts that would erode the society moral behaviour. 

All people have the right to live in a safe environment, without the fear that their children will become drug addicts or die of addiction. Removing these people from the society is a measure to maintain public safety. Additionally, seeing people get executed, it deter other youths from practicing such acts (Ryan, 2016).

            Additionally, the society ethics is embedded on the beliefs and ideas if what is wrong or right, good and bad. Human dignity is embedded in the social relationships satisfaction and attitudes held by the society. In addition, it is embedded on the patterns of behaviour that are believed by the society as they bring in harmony and cooperation, fairness and justice.  The beliefs and ideas of human dignity are analysed, articulated and interpreted according to the moral thinkers of the society.

Most of the westernized society are characterised by organized functioning human communities. The ethical systems have undoubtedly evolved their values, values and principles that regulate human behaviour (Kirchhoffer & Dierickx, 2011). Based on the Indonesian society values and believes, then Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar punishment was justified.

The main argument for the ruling by the Indonesian court is that it aimed at deterring such actions from happening again. In my perspective, death penalty does not seem to deter people from committing violent crimes. It only deters the likelihood of other criminals being caught and punished.  There lacks a scientific proof that the death penalty resulted to greater deterrent effect than other forms of punishment (Kirchhoffer & Dierickx, 2012).

Therefore, the execution of these two prisoners was harsh punishment on the individuals but not on crime.  The impact underlying societal expectation and values cannot be overlooked. This has resulted in education frameworks that ignore the fundamental values of human dignity but focuses more on wealth acquisition.  For this reason, the society has failed to value life and to cherish human beings above their possessions, power, desires and pleasures (Wierenga, 2011).

Human Dignity is Multidimensional

Humans possess multidimensional qualities including the emotional, physical, social, spiritual, symbolic and interpersonal qualities.  According to Macquarrie, humanity is unfinished product that is moving into possibilities that are still unfolded.  Therefore, during these developments and concepts, human dignity concepts tend to conflict each other.  Human dignity is multidimensional.  It can be described in four different ways, which sometimes they conflict to one another. Human dignity is something that human already have and also something that they strive to acquire (Lee, 2014).

Based on International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), all people that have limited liberty must be treated with liberty and respect (1 A). This affirms the argument in that dignity lie in human.  This ideology acknowledges the complexity of being human and the multidimensional aspects involved. Therefore, human beings are not to be reduced to one type of level of functioning (Vanhaelemeesch & Vander Beken, 2014).

Where a deviation occurs, it is important to understand that all humans are equal. It is important to also acknowledge that dignity as an aspect that can be acquired or lost through sense of self-worth (2A).   Therefore, it is likely that Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar past actions were due to loss of self-worth, but through rehabilitative processes, their self-worth would have been restored. However, their loss of sense of dignity cannot be equated to their actual possession of dignity (Strelan & Prooijen, 2013).

The quadrant 1B argues that Human beings have inherent worth due to their distinctive and special abilities.Perspective 2B states that dignity can be acquired or lost through moral or immoral behaviour which according to my perspective, they do not support death penalty as human beings have unique capacity of being rehabilitated and become reformed. Therefore, it is rather obvious to state that if human life is complex than on single dimension, then it is unfair to just the person’s dignity based on one dimension.  Although it is important to acknowledge that a person’s moral action indicates their dignity orientation, it is also important to recognize that there is chance for change, growth, compassion, forgiveness and reconciliation (Matthews, 2014).

Conclusion

            The criminal justice system should maintain law and order in the society by punishing the offenders. However, harsh and unjustified punishments will not restore the victim’s behaviours. In my perspective, capital punishment must be eradicated and replaced with rehabilitative services that challenge, encourage and reward the offenders for their transformed attitudes and behaviours.

Most of the offenders engage in criminal activities to seek means of survival. Empowering them with skills will help them get employment, and live by example in the society. In this case, the execution of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar was unjustified as their human dignity was not protected. I believe these past experiences have facilitated change in such policies that devalue the dignity of human.

References

Cassidy, J. (2012). Hollow Avowals of Human Rights Protection – Time for an Australian Federal Bill Of Rights? Deakin Law Review, 13(2), 131-176.

Dhai, A. (2013). Human Dignity in Contemporary Ethics by David G Kirchhoffer. S Afr J BL, 6(2), 74. http://dx.doi.org/10.7196/sajbl.294341..com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5913723&site=ehost-live,

JONES, D. (2012). HUMAN DIGNITY IN BIOETHICS AND LAW by Charles Foster. New Blackfriars, 94(1049), 114-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.2012.01524_2.x

Kirchengast, T. (2010). The Landscape of Victim Rights in Australian Homicide Cases–Lessons from the International Experience. Oxford Journal Of Legal Studies, 31(1), 133-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqq031

Kirchhoffer, D. (2011). Bioethics and the Demise of the Concept of Human Dignity. Human Reproduction & Genetic Ethics, 17(2), 141-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/hrge.v17i2.141

Kirchhoffer, D. & Dierickx, K. (2011). Human dignity and human tissue: a meaningful ethical relationship?. Journal Of Medical Ethics, 37(9), 552-556. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jme.2010.041509

Kirchhoffer, D. & Dierickx, K. (2012). Human dignity and consent in research biobanking. S Afr J BL, 5(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.7196/sajbl.237

Lee, C. (2014). Inter-war Penal Policy and Crime in England: The Dartmoor Convict Prison Riot, 1932. Social History, 39(2), 303-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03071022.2014.896548

MATTHEWS, P. (2014). HUMAN DIGNITY IN CONTEMPORARY ETHICS by David G. Kirchhoffer, Teneo Press, New York, 2013, pp. xii + 356, £16.00, pbk. New Blackfriars, 96(1061), 122-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nbfr.12103_9

Mattson, D. & Clark, S. (2011). Human dignity in concept and practice. Policy Sci, 44(4), 303-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11077-010-9124-0

McCormick, P. (2015). Book Review: Human Dignity in Contemporary Ethics. By David G. Kirchhoffer. Theological Studies, 76(4), 895-896. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040563915605267r

Muftic, L. & Hunt, D. (2012). Victim Precipitation: Further Understanding the Linkage Between Victimization and Offending in Homicide. Homicide Studies, 17(3), 239-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767912461785

Roche, D. (2011). The Evolving Definition of Restorative Justice. Contemporary Justice Review, 4(3/4),

Ryan, P. (2016). CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. Quadrant Magazine, 50(1/2), 127-128. Stapleton, P., & Whitehead, M. (2014). Dysfunctional Eating in an Australian Community Sample: The Role of Emotion Regulation, Impulsivity, and Reward and Punishment Sensitivity. Australian Psychologist, 49(6), 358-368. doi:10.1111/ap.12070.

Rydberg, J. & Pizarro, J. (2014). Victim Lifestyle as a Correlate of Homicide Clearance. Homicide Studies, 18(4), 342-362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767914521813

Strelan, P., & Prooijen, J. (2013). Retribution and forgiveness: The healing effects of punishing for just deserts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(6), 544-553. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1964. Weatherburn, D. (2014). Strategies for managing criminal justice systems. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 53(1), 67.

Trojan, C. & Salfati, C. (2010). A Multidimensional Analysis of Criminal Specialization Among Single-Victim and Serial Homicide Offenders. Homicide Studies, 14(2), 107-131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767910364936

Vanhaelemeesch, D. & Vander Beken, T. (2014). Between convict and ward: the experiences of people living with offenders subject to electronic monitoring. Crime Law Soc Change, 62(4), 389-415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10611-014-9535-5

Wierenga, A. (2011). Transitions, local culture and human dignity: Rural young men in a changing world. Journal of Sociology, 47(4), 371-387. doi:10.1177/144078311420791.

Zylberman, A. (2016). Human Dignity. Philosophy Compass, 11(4), 201-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12317

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Current Product Offering within a Fashion Retailer

Fashion Retailer
Fashion Retailer

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A Report of Research and Analysis a Current Product Offering within a Fashion Retailer that has a UK Store Presence

Introduction

 With changing global fashion trends, the clothing and textile industry has undoubtedly become one of the most dynamic and competitive as well as rapidly changing sectors. This has prompted many fashion retailers across the world to embark on regular product offering as well as global sourcing in order achieve competitive advantage in the international market for them to remain relevant (Akhil, 2015).  The aims and objectives of this report is to research and analyse a current product offering for a fashion retailer that has a UK store presence and make recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season (Spring/summer ‘17) for an international market.  

This is done with an emphasis on produce Illustrator designs for the following season (Spring/summer ‘17) within the allocated budget of £600K, which are appropriate for an international market. In addition, an assortment or range plan is produced in an Excel spreadsheet to indicate budget spend. Through this approach it is possible to present the buy per garment that includes a number of aspects with regards to the designed garment including volume (ranking), spend, distribution, attributes as well as sourcing country. Finally, the report will provide analysis of sourcing criteria with recommendations including a valid critical path.

Overview of current offer

The fashion retail to be considered in this report is the H&M, which has grown from a single women’s wear shop in Västerås, Sweden, and has nowadays extensively expanded its operations across the world to have presence across international market through its six different brands and 4,000 fashion retail stores all around the world. Six independent brands are the main outlets through which H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB comprises six runs its day to day operations in marketing and sale of fashion products, and these brands are: H&M, COS, Cheap Monday, Monki, Weekday, and & Other Stories (H&M, 2016).

The team which has been mandated with the function of innovating and developing H&M’s fashion designs has been playing an imperative role in creating sustainable fashion for all, while striving to ensure that they are always offered for sale at the best price and quality. The collections of fashion designs that are developed by H&M designers include everything from quintessential functional and basics sportswear for children, teenagers, women, and men, to dazzling party collections for every occasion or season (H&M, 2016).

In addition, to shoes, bags, clothes, jewellery, underwear and make up as well as fashionable interiors for children and adults. The variety and width of the H&M collections is an indication that customers are always able to find something to suit their wardrobe as well as their style. The fashion has since inception tremendously expanded its operations globally and nowadays it has presence across many parts of the world through the H&M stores in 61 markets worldwide. In addition, the fashion retailer has an extensive online presence through which it makes a significant proportion of merchandise mainly because of its online shopping in 32 countries (H&M, 2016).

The current garments on offering which are under consideration are the special ladies’ dresses fashion collections for the Conscious Exclusive 2016 in the month of May

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Analysis on current garments

The current garments on offering which are under consideration are the special ladies’ dresses fashion collections for the Conscious Exclusive 2016 in the month of May.

The description of the current garment under consideration is as follows:

Title: Conscious Exclusive 2016

Price: £499

Description: A sleeveless round neck wedding or ready to wear dress made from two layers, whereby the outside layer is made from organic silk while the inner layer made from Tencel. The dress has been subjected to further decoration through embellishment with Art Deco inspired embroidery of glass beads that have been made from recycled glass. The dress was offered for sale in April 7, 2016 and the offer is still ongoing (H&M, 2016).

An illustration of the picture is shown the picture below:               

Product Development

This part of the report will cover the Illustrator proposals for the fashion designs envisaged to be developed for next season (Spring/summer ‘17) for an international market. As a result, this part will be covered in two sections, the first one discussing the Illustrator proposals as well as the fashion design specifications for the considered garment, and the second part covering the assortment or range plan.   

Illustrator proposals

Through the illustrator proposals, designs are produced within the allocated budget of £600K for SS’17 season for an international market. This will include CAD drawings for each design showing two views (front & back) including colour ways or prints. Furthermore, specifications for each selected design will be provided starting with thumbnail sketches and using the mood boards as inspiration (Mayer, 2014).        

      

Assortment plan

The assortment range plan in this report was included for the purpose of compiling a collection of garments that was commercially acceptable within the design and financial parameters, before the mass production can commence. However, there are some procedures that is needed to be included and stringently followed in the assortment or range plan for the purpose of making sure that the buyer can have a glimpse or insight into the anticipated or planned collection offering.

For instance, the assortment plan has to include a number of factors of the production including the number of garments to be included in the collection range. In addition, there must also be inclusion of different types of garments or collection (fashion to classic, tops to bottom styles) as well as specific styles which are to be included e.g. color and fabrics used to make the garment. Furthermore, the assortment plan should also include the price at which each garment is to be sold, the cost price of producing each garment, sizes included, among others (Miller, 2008; Mayer, 2014).

Recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season for an International market (Spring/Summer ‘17)

In order to ensure that the most appropriate recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season for an International market (Spring/Summer ‘17), there is need to undertake an assortment fashion forecasting based on the prevailing fashion trends. This is attributable to the fact that fashion forecasting plays an important role in determining the fashion trends in future by focusing on upcoming fashion and lifestyle trends (Mayer, 2014).

For instance, the H&M must be able to specifically focus on fashion trends and predict the styles, fabrics, colours that have a high likelihood of presentation on the runaway as well as in the stores for the fashion events that are to take place in the near future. This concept of fashion forecasting applies across the entire fashion industry including mass market, ready-to-wear, haute couture as well as street wear (Miller, 2008).

Therefore, the product can be progressed for the following season for an International market through an appropriate and perfect merchandise mix by ensuring that the colours of leather and that of the fabric used are perfectly matched with a consideration of trending colours for the international market (Mayer, 2014). In addition, the product can also be progressed by accessorizing it in order to make it more appealing. However, the accessories to be used must be carefully selected bearing in mind the prevailing fashion, style, and social trends.

For example, the product can be progressed by decorating it through embellishment with Art Deco inspired embroidery of glass beads that have been made from recycled glass. Furthermore, variations of the bound cuff seams, necklines as well as hems can also be differentially used to give the dress distinctive appearances depending on the fashion trends. Moreover, inclusion of a side and/or arm mesh as well as invisible zip is the other way through which this product can be progressed (NPR, 2011).

Sourcing summary

Global Sourcing and International Trade

Global sourcing has become an important aspect of fashion industry in the international trade, and it involves the selection of a supplier of either a product or the raw materialcomponents and services used in the make up and delivery of the products. As a result, true global sourcing is when a business manufactures and sells a consistent product globally, sourcing some or the entire product from third parties chosen to enable cost-effective and efficient sourcing and coordinated globally.  

Global sourcing in contemporary international business is not solely concerned about reduction of production costs but also it focuses on improved on the supply and demand chains of finished products as well as raw materials. However, as observed in illustrations provided in the diagrams shown below it is important to note that, previously global sourcing was all about cost. As a result, the objective was to source product or components from a country with low labour costs with an ultimate goal of gaining cost advantage.

There has been changing trends in global sourcing whereby according to Kurt Salmon (2012) book acting as a global sourcing reference; the largest manufacturers of clothing and textiles are shown in the table shown below. The ranking is done based on the value of apparel exportation in terms of millions of U.S. Dollars expressed as percentages.

Source: Kurt Salmon Global Sourcing Reference, 11th Edition

In contrast, despite the fact that top apparel exporters are located in Asia most retailers are either found in the Europe or U.S. For instance, according to Salmon (2012), 88 per cent of clothing retailers are located within Europe and China is ranked as their number one sourcing destination. However, there has been an increasing trend of production costs over the recent past, where production costs have increased 160 per cent since 2005.

A comparison of production costs across the world reveals sharp variations which an important determinant of the choices of sourcing countries for fashion retailers in Europe and the U.S. For example, Bangladesh and Vietnam have lowest PCI’s of all sourcing countries. However, Southern China greater costs than Central USA meaning that specific locations or regions within a country also be considered but not generally considering the country as a whole.

The emerging markets are also playing a significant role where Ethiopia could be one to watch since many fashion retailers have expressed interest (i.e. H&M, Tesco & Primark are all running pilots) in the country whose attraction to fashion retailers is attributed to its lower social living costs and well established transportation infrastructure. The table below ranks countries based on their PCI

Source: Kurt Salmon Global Sourcing Reference, 11th Edition

Moreover, with regards to cost there have been significant changes in the global sourcing trends. For instance, according to fashion price tracker figures by RetailWeek Analytics shows that there has been significantly changing production on markdown expressed in percentage among the leading fashion retailers with online presence.

Source: Retail Week Analytics

Global sourcing also involve the issues of quality, ethics and social responsibility as well as supply chain management as discussed in the sections that follows.

Quality

  • No longer disposable fashion attitude
  • Ensures competitor advantage

As our business has become more fashion centric, we have been able to source products from Asia that are not just low cost, but also fit the needs of the customer. But perceived quality continues to be a factor – certainly globally sourced goods are seen by consumers to be inferior when tagged with “Made in China” when in fact the quality is higher than comparable goods sourced in the UK.

Ethical & Social Responsibility

  • Not just human rights and community development issues.
  • Concerns for security, carbon footprint, bribery, corruption and money laundering.
  • Media has placed this trend at the top of both retailer’s and consumers concerns.

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Supply Chain Management

Supply Chain Management (SCM) is a network of connected and inter-dependent organisations mutually and co-operatively working together in order to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users. Key Supply Chain Management (SCM) ensures that the supply chain process starts and finishes with the consumer by making sure that each interface in the supply chain represents: 1) movement of goods; 2) information flow; and 3) purchase and sale. As a result, strategic SCM consists of developing smarter ways to choose who to buy from and sell to your business partners.

Importance of the Supply Chain Management

It is aimed to achieve the following benefits for the company:

  • Competitive Advantage

Supply chain management is now well established as a key source of competitive advantage, and the competitiveness achieved in International market is without any doubt the most imperative gain attributable to global sourcing. However, this is usually based upon consumers’ perceptions of the added value aspects of the retailer’s overall offering (Mayer, 2014).

For major success, businesses need to achieve a clear performance differential over competition   on factors that are important to target customers. The most successful methods are built upon some combination of 3 advantages: 1) being better in providing superior quality or service; 2) being faster in responding to customers needs; as well as 3) being closer to establishing closer relationships with customers (Miller, 2008).

  • Improving Financial Performance (Sales & Profits)

This determines the overall performance of a company and it can subsequently be measured through a number of methods including: 1) Financial Review; 2) Quality performance and practice; 3) Delivery and physical flow of stock; and 4) Information sharing, extended relationships.

  • Consumer & Supplier Loyalty

The “value” may either take the form of selling undifferentiated products at below competitors’ prices or unique benefits that justify premium pricing. The value chain may be used to identify and understand the sources of competitive advantage and how they relate to creating added value for customers

As a result, Porter’s 5 Forces Model should be used by fashion retailers prior to choosing companies or partners to collaborate with in their global sourcing strategy in order to determine the extent of factors that directly influence business including:

  • Threat new entrants
  • Threat of substitutes
  • Bargaining power of buyers
  • Bargaining power of suppliers
  • Degree of rivalry

Proposed sourcing strategy

This part focuses on a discussion providing an analysis of sourcing criteria as well as recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season for an International market (Spring/Summer ‘17) including a valid critical path. The proposed sourcing strategy will mainly emphasize on the supply base analysis and the appropriate and valid critical path as discussed in sections below:

Supply Base Analysis

  • Current sourcing
    • Brief overview for current product

The current product is usually made of a mixture of fabrics whereby the shell of the garment is made from 60 % leather (which has been ethically sourced from Nepal) and 34% of Bamboo Viscose (Mesh) as well as 4 % of Elastane. In addition, the lining of the current product consists of 100% Bamboo Viscose. The current product is a leather panelled dress, and the assortment consists of sleeveless, short-sleeved as well as one-sleeved leather panelled dresses.

  • Proposed sourcing
    • Sourcing analysis for each garment, consider components

The proposed sourcing including H&M and Nepal will involve ethical sourcing of leather in Nepal through a partner based in the country. In addition, the processing of the bamboo viscose will also continue in Nepal and Bangladesh. However, the subsequent tanning or processing of the leather and the bamboo viscose will be shifted to Bangladesh which has the lowest Production Cost Index (PCI) of all sourcing countries across the world. Furthermore, the production of the garments upon approval of the designs will also continue in Bangladesh, and the finished products subsequently shipped to Europe.

  • PEST analysis for sourcing countries

The political situation in both Nepal and Bangladesh pose a risk to the sourcing activities undertaken considering that both countries are not significantly politically meaning that political upheavals may arise at any time and hinder production. There is also technology risk since both countries have not significantly adopted technology in the production processes meaning that the rate of production can not reach the level of the countries where technology has been significantly embraced.

  • Rationale for sourcing choice

A comparison of production costs across the world reveals sharp variations which an important determinant of the choices of sourcing countries for fashion retailers in Europe and the U.S. For example, many Asian countries have low Production Cost Index (PCI) with Bangladesh having the lowest Production Cost Index (PCI) of all sourcing countries across the world. Thus, these emerging markets are playing a significant role for many fashion retailers by acting sourcing countries, which is attributed to its lower social living costs and well established transportation infrastructure. As a result, there will b reduced production costs.

Critical Path   

The validated and appropriate critical path will be provided in the template shown below:

Conclusion                                                 

In conclusion, it can be observed that it is possible for a fashion product on offering by fashion retailers to be adequately analyzed and Illustrator proposals as well as assortment plans designed leading to the development of new garments which are more improved that those offered. However, in order for this to take place successfully the fashion retailer must establish an appropriate fashion forecasting trend mechanisms as well as an effective global sourcing and supply chain management systems.      

References

Akhil J. K. (2015). Fashion Forecasting. Retrieved from  http://libraries.uc.edu/libraries/daap/resources/researchguides/design/forecasting.html  

Birnbaum, D. (2000). Global Guide to Winning the Great Garment War.

Handfield, R. & Nichols, E. (1999). Introduction to Supply Chain Management.

H&M (2016). Conscious Exclusive 2016. Retrieved from http://about.hm.com/en/ImageGallery/fashion.html

Keiser, S. J. & Garner, M. B. (2008). Beyond Design: the Synergy of Apparel Product Development. New York, NY: Fairchild Publications.

Kerkhoff, G. et al. (2006).  Global Sourcing: Opportunities for the Future. Weinheim Düsseldorf: Wiley-VCH.

Kim, E., Fiore, A. M., & Kim, H. (2013). Fashion Trends: Analysis and Forecasting. Berg. ISBN 9780857853158.

Mayer, L. (2014) “Q&A with the Founder of SHIPSHOW”. Retrieved April 21, 2014.

Miller, C. C. (2008). Designers of High Fashion Enter the Age of High Tech: New York Times . 8 Sept. 2008. <http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/08/technology/08trend.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0>.

Monczka, T. & Handfield, T. (2005). Purchasing and Supply Management, 3rd edition. New York, NY: Thomson South-Western.

NPR (2011) Forecasting Fashion Trends: NPR. NPR: National Public Radio: News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts: NPR. Web. 10 Apr. 2011. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1432978>.

Roth, T. & Pullman, G. (2008). Unraveling the Food Supply Chain: Strategic Insights from China and the 2007 Pet Food Recalls. Journal of Supply Chain Management, Vol. 44 Issue 1, pp. 22-39.

Websites

www.clothesource.net

www.labourbehindthelabel.org

www.businessoffashion.com

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Mixed Method Approach: Research Design

Mixed Method Approach
Mixed Method Approach

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Mixed Method Approach Research Designs

            Every work involves the use of specific tool or apparatus that enhances the attainment of the desired objectives. Similarly, in research, there are diverse methods that can be applied to collect data and come up with scientific reality or information about the social reality. In some instances, research work will need to apply combined techniques or more than one technique to increase the chances of getting more reliable information.

One of the prominent research techniques is the use of the Mixed Method Research, (MMR). Mixed method approach, also referred to as the multi-methodology, involves the application of both the quantitative and qualitative techniques in a single study. The application of both techniques can either be concurrent or sequential. The mixed method approach is likely to give a wider dimension of approach to research when applied in psychology-based study.

The current paper describes the mixed method research as an integration of both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition, the paper explains the type of questions best explained by the mixed method approach. The paper also elaborates the strength and limitation of mixed method approach. Finally, there is the rationale for and against the utility of mixed methods in psychology.

            According to Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004), the mixed method approach can be used to bridge the rift between quantitative and qualitative techniques. Both techniques though viewed as different, may have closer similarities. For example, both techniques aim to gather empirical evidence or data to address the questions posed. Mixed method approach is therefore an integrated approach that erases the limitations posed by the single method and can be used to answer a question posed on the social phenomenon (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).

The mixed method approach technique usually uses both quantitative and qualitative techniques in order to create a greater validity that can be derived through the use of varied techniques of data collection. In the mixed method research technique, both the qualitative and quantitative data are collected. Afterwards, the data are mixed together to produce more comprehensive and integrated results regarding the social reality.

The mixed method technique can therefore be viewed as the bringing together of the qualitative and quantitative techniques (Creswell, 2014). Consequently, the mixed method technique can be explained as a convergence of results arising from both the qualitative and the quantitative results. This can be illustrated by the diagram below.

RESULTS

The data collected from both the qualitative and quantitative techniques are then connected together to form integrated research results.

Lastly, the information that is got from the result of carrying out both techniques is then embedded together and used to explain the social phenomenon that was under enquiry.

Any research study usually aims to answer a specific question or identify a gap that has been identified. When applying the mixed method of approach, one question is usually developed and then extended into quantitative and qualitative sub-questions. Once the enquiry has been undertaken, different perspectives of research are got and can therefore be used to explain the social phenomena under the study (Collins & O’cathain, 2009).  The questions that are raised and are to be investigated can be answered from a number of perspectives.

In a concurrent mixed study method, both the quantitative and qualitative studies are carried out together and results emanating from the study combined. In a sequential study approach, the qualitative method for instance can be carried out first while the quantitative technique will be used to test a named hypothesis arising from the study so as to enhance generalization of the facts (Burkholder, Cox, & Crawford, 2016).

One of the advantages of using the mixed method approach is that the researcher can be able to use narratives, words and pictures to be able to explain reality or factual data in social phenomena (Creswell, 2014). For instance, Psychological facts can better be understood when a combination of these concepts will be used to aid in the explanation of the social reality.

From another insightful perspective, the researcher has an ample platform that allows him/her to be able to generate and at the same time test any grounded theory (Burkholder, Cox, & Crawford, 2016).  Since the researcher will not be confined to particular tenets of the single method of research, he/she can be able to tackle broader and complete varieties of questions.

This allows the researcher to explore fully and comprehensively the case that he/she is studying to come up with conclusive information on what he/she is studying. In the mixed method approach, therefore, there is the concept of complementarily. Additionally, the mixed method allows the researcher to be able to add insightful facts and methods that can be ignored when a single research technique is applied in carrying out research work especially in psychology.

On the other hand, the mixed method can be considered to be more time-consuming and expensive. From another perspective, a lot of researchers may also find it difficult to handle any conflicting ideas or results arising from the study that uses the mixed method research technique.  Furthermore, there are some researchers who may hold methodological predilections, which may make them lean on one method at the expense of the other. In such cases, the researcher may fail to understand the mixed methods as a complete integration of both the qualitative and quantitative methods.

Psychology-based researches require intensive implementation of research techniques that come up with viable results that fully explain a specific social phenomenon. For example, when the mixed method is used in finding out psychological concepts in the social world, the researcher is likely to come up with stronger evidence that will be derived from the convergence and collaboration of ideas from both the qualitative and quantitative techniques, applied together.  

When both methods have been applied, the researcher can come up with a complete knowledge that can be effective in explaining and informing psychological practices and theories (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2012). From another insightful perspective, when the mixed method approach is used to investigate a psychological concept, overlapping, though diverse ideas about a social phenomenon can be derived.

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When undertaking a psychological study, the mixed method can enhance complimentarily between the quantitative and qualitative techniques. For instance, the results that can be derived from one method can be verified using the other. For example, the qualitative study can be used to come up with a psychological concept in the social world. Quantitative study can afterwards be undertaken to verify the facts through coming up with a hypothesis following the survey undertaken from the qualitative study (Mertens, 2014). Consequently, when qualitative technique is used as a platform to carry out a survey study, quantitative technique can be used to verify the facts.

Contrarily, the mixed method approach can pose difficulties to the researcher especially where he/she will be required to apply two or more approaches concurrently to study a psychological concept on a certain population. The researcher will be required to go an extra mile to understand how to apply both methods and how to mix them appropriately.

In conclusion, a single method used in carrying out research can produce a variety of weaknesses. The mixed method approach can be used to compensate for the weaknesses that can be prevalent in every single technique. For instance, the use of both the qualitative and quantitative techniques yields results that give a comprehensive outlook about the social phenomenon under enquiry.

References

 Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., & Crawford, L. M. (2016).The scholar-practitioner’s guide to research design. Baltimore, MD: Laureate Publishing.

Collins, K. & O’cathain, A. (2009). Introduction: Ten points about mixed methods
research to be considered by the novice researcher. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3(1), 2-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.5172/mra.455.3.1.2

Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Sage Publications.

Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D. (2012). An applied reference guide to research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage Publications.

Johnson, R. & Onwuegbuzie, A. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189×033007014

Mertens, D. M. (2014). Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage publications.

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Mystery Boxes

Mystery Boxes
Mystery Boxes

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Mystery Boxes

Introduction

      Mystery boxes are used as an analogy for science where scientists manipulate sealed boxes and attempt to determine inner contents. The boxes are used to illustrate how scientific knowledge is fundamentally uncertain (Matthews, 2006). The essay in the form of a data chart, illustrates how two individuals, a scientist and a partner, observed a sealed mystery box and came up with the assumptive conclusion as to what the inner structures are.

Data Chart

 SCIENTIST
Observation1. When lifted, the box is relatively light suggesting the object is not dense. 2. When the box is tilted, objects move with ease from one corner to another. This precludes the objects are not arranged in a fixed manner. 3. Upon shaking the box, objects produced a discreet clanking sound which suggests it is a small metal object.  
ConclusionFrom the above observations, I came to the conclusion the objects are metallic most likely small nuts judging from the ease of movement and the sound made when they are struck against each other.
 PARTNER
Observation1. From initial observation of the box, small and compact, assumption is that the objects inside must be relatively small. 2. On lifting the box, observation is that it is light and almost weightless. This affirms the latter presumption that the object is small. 3. Upon tilting and shaking the box, objects hit against each other producing a distinct sound akin to small marbles.  
ConclusionFrom the above observations, I came to the conclusion that the objects in the mystery box are most likely marbles. Particularly, this is with regard to the light weight, how the item moves and distinct sound made when moved.
After analyzing both observations tabled, conclusion arrived at is that the objects in the mystery box are small and metal like, most likely to be either a nut or a marble.

References

Matthews, B. (2006). Engaging Education: Developing Emotional Literacy, Equity and Co-education. London: Open University Press.

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Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research
Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

            Ethical consideration in the process of research plays an imperative role in promoting research authenticity. Three of the most common qualitative research ethical dilemmas are discussed below.

Conflict of interest

            This dilemma arises when financial or personal considerations threaten to compromise objectivity and professional judgment, thus leading to bias during qualitative research. Conflict of interest may emerge from interpersonal relationships, academic interests, financial partnerships, association with particular organizations, and multiple roles within organization among other incentives that may compromise the researcher’s integrity or respect for policy (Quimby, 2012). Conflict of interest has the potential to imperil the integrity of research and impact on participants’ protection. It may also distract the researcher.

Research with vulnerable and protected populations

            This refers to research that involves obtaining information from individuals who are incapable or relatively incapable of safeguarding their own interests. Examples include children, mentally disabled, handicapped, institutionalized, very sick, racial minorities, economically disadvantaged, prisoners and neonates (Henry, 2012). This ethical dilemma is based on the Belmont Report on ‘respect for persons and justice,’ which puts two ethical convictions: that individuals need to be dealt with as autonomous agents, and that individuals with diminished autonomy and who require protection have a right to protection.

Self as subject

            This dilemma represents a situation in which the researcher is involved in the research as a subject. This rises ethical concerns over whether the researcher can be objective in analyzing information that directly relates to them or whether they will be biased based on their experiences (Wang, 2016). In the case of self-experimentation, the ethical issues emerging include why the researcher does not want other people to benefit from the research and whether the issue of consent is a matter of concern. This is not directly applicable in my research, given that I am not a subject in the study.

Ethical issues in my study

            In my study, ethical issues that may arise include privacy, where the respondents may want to keep their involvement in the study confidential. To counter this, I will ensure confidentiality is promoted throughout the research (Leew, Hox & Dillman, 2012). I will also give respondents an opportunity to choose between conducting the interview at work or in a different setting. The second ethical issue is informed consent. This concerns the willingness of the respondents to be involved in the research. Before the commencement of the research, I will ensure that the respondents have agreed to participate, by way of signing a consent form.

References

Henry, D 2012, Human Subjects Research with Vulnerable Populations, Retrieved from www.ihrp.uic.edu/files/Vulnerability_IHRP_041012.pdf

Leew, E. D., Hox, J & Dillman, D. (2012). International Handbook of Survey Methodology European Association of Methodology Series. London:  Routledge.

Quimby, E. (2012). Doing Qualitative Community Research: Lessons for Faculty, Students and the Community. UAE: Bentham Science Publishers.

Wang, S 2016, More Medical Researchers Engage in Self-Experimentation, Retrieved from

www.wsj.com/articles/more-medical-researchers-engage-in-self-experimentation-1453738625

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Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Integrating qualitative and quantitative data

The mixed method, qualitative and quantitative, research design has been viewed as the most complicated process when it comes to research analysis. For this reason, different tactics which are essential have been implemented for a sound approach and the implementation of the rules of the data coming together. However, the mixed method research design is of greater significance due to the following reasons.

  1. Triangulation: When a researcher uses different sources to look for data validation of each of the method’s findings, (Fielding, 2012)
  2. Initiation: The results from either method may bring out new research questions which require being analyzed further, initiating the other study project with multiple sources of data, (Bazeley, and Kemp,  2012)
  3. Expansion: The researcher tends to develop one technique by using the find of the other.
  4. Complimenting: The researcher complement findings from a particular source with the utilization of the various source of data.

Ethical issues and feasibility constraints

When conducting research, the moral deliberation should be at the front position as the researchers get on ant capable future research. It is vital for the researcher to be by the ethical requirements. It means that the researcher has to consider the following ethical issues:

  1. Confidentiality: Companies might opt to be anonymous, and it is okay to employ pseudonyms for the firms and the person in a business enterprise studied.
  2. Permission: The researcher should not assume that they can video/sound record or even take photographs. It is necessary to seek for approval before undertaking the process and also request permission when in need to employ direct quotation and secure the image of the quoted author where appropriate, (Bryman, and Bell, 2015)
  3. Communication: The researcher is mandated to officially write to the person to be involved in the research highlighting the agenda to be discussed, (Mertens, 2014)

Budget and time constraints constrain the feasibility of the study.  It is vital for the mixed methods to carefully consider the access of different source of data in line with the significance permission as well as the extra time required to gather and analyze various types of evidence, (Bell, J., 2014).  It is usually impractical for a comparatively green student researcher to get the appropriate time and more so resources for such a complicated and time-consuming manner.

Significant barrier to the integration of qualitative and quantitative data

The most important barrier as far as the combination of the qualitative and quantitative data is concerned different audiences, (Glogowska, 2015). After the researchers have used both the methodology to come up with complete results, they at times feel that they end up writing their results from the qualitative and quantitative analysis for diverse audiences. That is, either the scenery of the content is attractive a particular audience or the notion of the readers and vice versa.

The mixed method’s expectation at times means that whichever set of data draws attention to or employed more or less entirely.  The opinion of such expectation of the viewers or readers might cause the researcher to be biased on the keeping out one of the research method or make it of less significance while stressing on the other, (Venkatesh, Brown, and Bala, 2013)

Bibliography

Bazeley, P. and Kemp, L., 2012. Mosaics, triangles, and DNA metaphors for integrated analysis in mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(1), pp.55-72.

Bell, J., 2014. Doing Your Research Project: A guide for first-time researchers. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).

Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015. Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA.

Fielding, N.G., 2012. Triangulation and mixed methods designs data integration with new research technologies. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(2), pp.124-136.

Glogowska, M., 2015. Paradigms, pragmatism and possibilities: mixed-methods research in speech and language therapy. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, pp.1-10.

Mertens, D.M., 2014. Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage publications.

Venkatesh, V., Brown, S.A. and Bala, H., 2013. Bridging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Guidelines for conducting mixed methods research in information systems. MIS quarterly, 37(1), pp.21-54.

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Quota Sampling

quota sampling
Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling

Introduction

There are two types of sampling; probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Of the two, probability sampling is the best, since there is a higher likelihood of obtaining a representative sample, and sampling error can be taken into account. In this report, we will discuss exclusively about quota sampling.  This is a non-probability sampling. By definition, this is a sampling technique which aims at obtaining representative data from a sample.

Let start with the definition of some terms. Sample, is simple terms means a subsection, subgroup, or portion of the population. Sampling, is the process of acquiring a representative portion of population and population is the entire elements under investigation.

There are a number of reasons as to why investigators may opt to use a sample instead of the entire population, despite sampling error. First, it has an economical advantage since fewer resources are used than when a census is carried out (Levy & Lemeshow, 2013). The sampling has timelessness factor, where the information required can be obtained faster than when a complete enumeration of objects is carried out.

Further, the researcher sort to use sampling when the population has infinite and when some of the population units/objects are inaccessible. Lastly, but not least, when the assessment destructs the objects under investigation (Levy & Lemeshow, 2013). Not forgetting, that sometimes a carefully selected sample may represent the population well than a sloppy conducted census. That is, the sample will truly mirror the population from which it was drawn from (Hu et al., 2017).

Literature review

As stated earlier, quota sampling is a nonprobability sampling. A nonprobability sampling in accordance with (Trochim & Donnelly, 2014) is a technique that is based on the judgement of the researcher. The collected sample has the same proportion of the mother population with identical traits and the targeted phenomenon. More importantly, the final sample obtained should have the composition criteria of the quota set. Since this paper discusses one of the nonprobability sampling, it is imperative to highlight some principles of nonprobability sampling.

Principle of quota sampling

In this type of sampling, the quantity of each sampling is find out in advance, however investigators look to find in each quota. For each type, the quotas are of fixed numbers, which the investigators would like to add in the sample. Let consider an example in which an investigator would like to have a sample in which the proportion of each gender by different age levels are approximately the same and the sample size is 1000. Let the population proportion is given in Table 1 and the quota of individual type of sampling unit is the sample size multiplied by the population proportion and the results are shown in table 2. (Chang-Tai Chao) 

     Table 1 Population Proportion

                                                                    Age
Gender    20-29     30-39     40-4950-5960-Above
Female   0.10    0.10    0.09 0.11  0.12
Male   0.10    0.08     0.1 0.11  0.09

                Table 2 Quotas

                                                                    Age
Gender    20-29     30-39     40-4950-5960-Above
Female   100    100      90  110   120
Male   100     80     100  110     90

Principles of nonprobability sampling.

Quota sampling falls under the class of non-probability sampling. Sampling involves the selection of a lot of the population being considered. In probability sampling each element in the population has a known nonzero chance of being selected through the utilization of an irregular determination system, for example, basic arbitrary testing. Non-probability examining does not include known nonzero probabilities of choice. (Paul J. Lavarakas) Or maybe, subjective techniques are utilized to choose which components ought to be incorporated into the specimen.

In non-likelihood inspecting the populace may not be very much characterized. Non-probability examining is frequently isolated into three classifications: purposive inspecting, comfort testing, and share examining. Share examining has a few similitudes to stratified inspecting. The essential thought of standard testing is to set an objective number of finished meetings with particular subgroups of the number of inhabitants in intrigue.

The testing strategy then continues utilizing a nonrandom choice component until the coveted number of finished meetings is acquired for every subgroup. A typical illustration is to set half of the meetings with guys and half with females in an irregular digit dialing phone talk with study. A specimen of phone numbers is discharged to the questioners for calling. Toward the begin of the overview, one grown-up is haphazardly chosen from a specimen family unit. It is by and large more hard to get interviews with guys.

So for instance, if the aggregate sought number of meetings is 1,000 (500 guys and 500 females), and meetings with 500 females are gotten before meetings with 500 guys, then no further meetings would be directed with females and just guys would be arbitrarily chosen and met until the objective of 500 guys is come to. Females in those specimen family units would have a zero likelihood of choice.

Additionally, on the grounds that the 500 female meetings were in all probability gotten at before call endeavors, before the example phone numbers were altogether worked by the questioners, females living in harder-to-achieve family units are more averse to be incorporated into the specimen of 500 females. Shares are frequently in light of more than one trademark. For instance, a standard specimen may have questioner appointed shares for age by sex by business status classes.

For a given example family unit the questioner may request the rarest gathering in the first place, and if an individual from that gathering is available in the family unit, that individual will be met. On the off chance that an individual from the rarest gathering is absent in the family, then a person in one of the other uncommon gatherings will be chosen. Once the quantities for the uncommon gatherings are filled, the questioner will move to filling the amounts for the more typical gatherings.

In that regard are both hypothetical and down to earth justification for using this kind of examining in research. In hypothetical reasons, this progress of information testing permits the utilization of subjective, blended research techniques and furthermore quantitative strategies. (Paul J. Lavarakas) By the time, when quantitative research is received, this inspecting procedure is oftentimes if not generally seen as sub-par compared to likelihood examining. This system helps in accomplishing objectivity of the specialist.

For instance, the analyst may utilize portion testing for intentionally protecting the incorporation of an uncommon segment of the populace. In any case, it ought to be specified that the fragment won’t not vary altogether contrast from the parent populace. The most common example of the limitation of this type of approach pre-election surveys to anticipate the consequences of the 1948 U.S. presidential decision. The field questioners were offered shares to fill in view of qualities, for example, age, sexual orientation, race, level of urban city, and financial status.

The questioners were sans then to fill the standards with no likelihood examining system set up. This subjective choice technique brought about an inclination for Republicans will probably be met inside the quantity bunches than Democrats. This brought about the example containing an excessive number of Republicans and bringing on the pre-race surveys to inaccurately foresee Thomas Dewey (the Republican applicant) as the victor.

Share inspecting is infrequently utilized as a part of conjunction with region likelihood testing of family units. Zone likelihood examining systems are utilized to choose essential testing units and fragments. For each specimen portion (e.g., city obstruct) the questioner is told to begin at a side of the section and continue around the fragment, reaching lodging units until a particular number of meetings are finished in the portion.

A noteworthy issue with quota sampling is the introduction of the unknown sampling biases estimates in survey. On account of the 1948 U.S. presidential decision, the testing inclination was related with an excessive number of Republicans being chosen. Another issue with quantity examining is that the inspecting technique regularly brings about a lower reaction rate than would be accomplished in a likelihood test.

Most amount tests quit endeavoring to finish interviews with dynamic example families once the standards have been met. In the event that a lot of test is dynamic at the time the amounts are shut, then the reaction rate will be low. (Paul J. Lavarakas)

However, some practical reasons of using quota sampling are that; this approach gives the investigator exploratory power to determine whether the problem exists when no theory exists that such problem exists. Therefore, the researcher may opt only to use sample that he/she thinks will portray the problem, which saves resources and time.

Ethical approach is important when deciding the sampling technique, as it may be unnecessary to subject fewer participants for an in-depth examination. Above all, it is imperative to determine whether quota sampling is a better sampling method to be used with the designed research strategy.

In accordance with (“Definition of ‘Quota Sampling’ – The Economic Times,” 2017) quota sampling is simple, yet effective approach a researcher can gather information in the initial phase of research. As earlier pointed out, quota sampling is ideal when the researcher wants to investigate whether a certain problem exists. As an example, there might be a notion that people in Iowa are against the death sentence.

A researcher may be interested in assessing the situation. However, the researcher may want to include people from Muslim religion. The researcher sets the minimum percentage of Muslims to be included in the sample, say 5%. Through this, the researcher is able to compare the views of people, including from the set quota.

Is quota sampling adequate method as an alternative to probability sampling?

A research was performed to assess whether quota sampling is an alternative to probability sampling (Yang & Banamah, 2014). Although probability sampling remains popular among many researchers and businesses. The research was driven by the fact that collecting data have become expensive and the response rate decreased.

Therefore, the researcher thought that quota sampling as a nonprobability sampling can be used as an alternative to probability sampling. The representativeness of quota sampling with probability sampling was compared as well as the assessment of the between the two sampling techniques using the survey topic and the response rate as factors (Yang, & Banamah, 2014).

It was established that the survey topic greatly influences the response rate, and response rate correlates with sample mean. Nonetheless, the researcher concluded these for that reason; quota sampling is not an alternative to probability sampling (Yang, & Banamah, 2014).

Types of quota sampling

Generally, there are two types of quota sampling:

  • Controlled quota sampling (proportional quota sampling)

The researcher, in this case, first impose the restrictions or the limit number of subjects to include. That is the researcher set a quota of each category. This is done to ensure that the major population or characteristics are well represented (Sharan, 2009).  For instance, it may be known that the number of female workers in a certain bank is 60% and 40% are males. The researcher may be interested in 100 sample people. Therefore, he samples 60 females and 40 males, and when 40 males are obtained, even if a potential and informed male come he will not sample them. This technique helps in limiting the researcher’s choices ((“Quota sampling – Research Methodology,” 2017))

  • Uncontrolled quota sampling (Nonproportional quota sampling)

In this case, the researcher in not limited in any way and thus selects the subjects as he/she wishes. This is considered as a sample of convenience, or simply it is less restrictive. The researcher just specifies the minimum number in each category, and one does not need to know the proportion. This sampling technique is more of a convenient sampling since the researcher can opt to use any number of participants so long as they meet the minimum requirements (“Quota sampling – Research Methodology,” 2017).

When to use quota sampling

There are scenario or situations that call for the researcher to use quota sampling technique. First, is when the researcher or the organization do not have sufficient time and resources to carry out stratified sampling. Therefore, due to effective and ease of conducting, the researcher uses this technique. Second, this sampling method is used when the accuracy of the information is not important.

For instance, when the researcher is conducting a pilot survey, or when there is no adequate information about the research topic. Also, when the researcher is just interested to study some subsections or subgroups, he sorts to use this nonprobability sampling. That is, when the interest is limited to certain traits, this method is ideal. If the main interest of the researcher is to determine the relationship between groups, then the ideal method is quota sample. Also, when the main aim is to compare the groups.

The sampling frame may be unavailable. Notably, mostly, if not all, of probability sampling, required. In the absence, of the list of all the subjects, the researcher uses this technique. That is, since the probability sampling the researcher should know the selection likelihood of each unit in the population.  Lastly, the research accuracy is not important and also the results are not for generalization purposes.

Thus the researcher can use quota sampling technique. This method results should not be used for generalization purposes since the units selected may sometimes not truly represent the parent population.  Therefore, the researcher can purposefully select quota sampling to investigate certain predefined traits.

Steps of creating quota sampling

There are three acceptable steps in creating quota sampling:

  1. Categorize or stratify the population.

First, the researcher divides the population into mutually exclusive groups. For instance, a researcher can stratify by gender, race, ethnicity, career, courses taken, religion and so on.

  • Computing quota for each stratum.

The researcher needs to determine the number of subjects to be used in each category. As illustrated earlier, the proportion of each category can be determined depending on the population proportion. Also, the researcher may set purposively a quota to a sample that might have a small likelihood of being sampled (as discussed in the Muslims case). In some cases, the researcher may not involve proportions when he just selects conveniently.

  • Continue selecting subjects until quotas for each stratum are obtained.

The researcher continues with selection until the exactly required number is obtained. When the quota of one group is attained, the researcher does not select any other subject even if he obtains a viable sample. However, he/she continues to select items for the other groups that quota has not been attained.

Difference between quota sampling and stratified sampling

Notably, the two sampling techniques are different, although they might be confused. First, in quota sampling the individuals are not selected randomly, that is why it is a nonprobability sampling. The samples are selected based on the researchers’ convenience. On the other hand, the stratified sampling, subjects are randomly selected into the sample (Sharan, 2009).

All the units or subjects in the population have an equal likelihood of being included in the final sample. In quota sampling, there are no call-back for particular samples. This implies that when a subject is missed, the researcher goes on and uses the available subjects. On the other hand, STRICTLY, there is a call-back, since if there are no call-backs the sampling will not be different from quota sample (sample of convenience) (Sharan, 2009).

Last but not least, since quota sampling is based on the judgement of the researcher it is full of biased and the most common type is a non-sampling error. Stratified sampling is not subjected to biasedness since the elements are randomly selected the only common error is sampling error.  

Advantages of quota sampling

This sampling technique is helpful when the researcher is unable to obtain a probability sample, but still, the researcher is aiming at obtaining a representative sample. This technique is adopted as a non-probability sampling that is closely equivalent to stratified sampling. Second, this technique is easier and quicker to carry, unlike probability sampling like stratified sampling (Trochim & Donnelly, 2014).

For this reason, this sampling method is adopted by masters’ students in dissertations where the target populations can be divided into categories. When quotas are used, they ensure that some groups are not overrepresented or other underrepresented. That is the main reason why in the computation of minimum units to be included from each category (quota) the population proportion is useful (Trochim & Donnelly, 2014).

A good example is as illustrated earlier, where a population consist 60% female and 40% male. These proportions were used in obtaining a sample of both categories, out of 100 sample required 60 females were selected, and 40 males were selected. Also, when quota sampling is used, there is stratification, which is ideal when the researcher wants to compare the two strata.

A good example is; in an organization, the researcher may select male and female and compares their average. The averages will determine which gender gets higher pay. Lastly, this sampling method is not dependent on the sampling frame. This implies that it can be used when a list of all subjects is absent, quota sampling can still be used. Therefore, it remains the most appropriate sampling technique when sampling frame is not there.

Disadvantages of quota sampling (limitation)

There are limitations of quota sampling. First, since the sample are not obtained through probabilistic means, it is impossible to estimate the sampling error. It is possible for subjects to be sampled based on the researcher’s convenience and resource usage consideration. This leads to sampling bias.  Results from such data cannot be used for generalization purposes, or cannot be used in inferential statistics. In particular, the results are only recommended for the sample used and not the entire population.

Therefore, limiting generalization. Another limitation is that the population should be able to be dived into two distinct groups. Otherwise, the process of data collection will not be possible. As examples, indicated, the population should have mutually exclusive strata; like gender, male and female (if there are no transgender issues). When the sample requirements are required to be compared, more categories are added.

A good example is, when the researcher is interested in assessing how male and female supporting death sentence changes depending on the religious such as the Muslims and Christians. Notably, the subject should be in one stratum and here there are four criteria. Therefore, the researcher needs to collect data from “male Muslims,” “Female Muslims,” “male Christians” and “Female Christians.”

Evidently, more subjects need to be sampled, increasing the cost and time of carrying out the survey. Further, the researcher needs to understand the population well, so that he/she can make the right stratification, calculate quota, and lastly keep on sampling to meet the quota specifications. Without proper knowledge, one is not able to use quota sampling as he/she might to obtain a representative sample.

Although the sample obtained may be proportional to the population, some of the characteristics may not be disproportional. Incompetency of the researcher or lack of proper skills may increase the biasedness of the sample since the subjects’ collection is based on the researcher’s judgement (Sharan, 2009). Thus, is of great importance that before, using quota sampling researcher should have adequate skills to collect representative samples.

Conclusion

There are a number of important aspects of quota sampling highlighted in this paper.  For instance, it has been indicated that this technique is a non-probability sampling, where the selected samples represent certain characteristics. Two types of quota sampling; controlled and uncontrolled sampling were also adequately discussed. When this sampling method should be used was also highlighted among another important aspect. As highlighted, the three steps are used in designing data collection using quota sampling method.

There are important factors that have been pointed out, in the literature of this paper, such as; the question whether quota sampling is a good alternative to probability sampling. Based, in the previous study by prominent scholars, it was established that this method is not is not an alternative to probability sampling.

A clarification was made on the underlying difference between stratified sampling, despite the two having some similarities like stratifying the population into mutually exclusive first. To support some claims or issues brought forward, different examples were given designed to clarify, how the quota sampling will work.

Some of the reasons for using quota sampling brought forward include, the researcher only selecting groups that only interests him. Investigate some traits or characteristics that have not been investigated before, or there is no preexisting literature and when the researcher is interested in comparing the groups of interest.

Despite this being a nonprobability sampling, it has proven to be helpful, especially when the sampling frame is absent. That is, all probability sampling techniques are dependent on the availability of the list of all population subjects. Therefore, the only option is resorting nonprobability sampling. This is also the ideal method when the researcher has less time and limited resources, as it is considered an alternative to stratified sampling.

It is advisable to use this method when the researcher has a deep understanding of the steps and process of data collection. Also, the researcher should avoid so much biasedness so that he can have a representative sample. Lastly, the findings obtained using data obtained via this technique should not be used for inferential purposes; rather they should make conclusion about the sample used.

References

Chang-Tai Chao, “Quota Sampling” (Incomplete information provided about the journal paper)

Definition of ‘Quota Sampling’ – The Economic Times. (2017). The Economic Times. Retrieved 23 March 2017, from http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/quota-sampling

Hu, X. F., Young, K., & Chan, H. M. (2017). Background Bivariate random-effects models represent a widely accepted and recommended approach for meta-analysis of test accuracy studies. Standard likelihood methods routinely used for inference are prone to several drawbacks. Small sample size can give rise to unreliable inferential conclusions and convergence issues make the approach unappealing. This paper suggests a different methodology to… BMC Medical Research Methodology, 17(1), 1-12. https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.springer-a4c4ef0e-2be0-30d3-9d87-a2c2297724c4

Levy, P. S., & Lemeshow, S. (2013). Sampling of populations: methods and applications. John Wiley & Sons. From https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XU9ZmLe5k1IC&oi=fnd&pg=PT14&dq=Sampling+of+populations:+methods+and+applications.&ots=oaeRJfQxUr&sig=oUVgwHhuzBCm1bjAZIEHR-uSHyQ

Paul J. Lavarakas, “Encyclopedia of Survey Research methods,” Volume 1 & 2

Quota sampling – Research Methodology. (2017). Research Methodology. Retrieved 23 March 2017, from http://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/quota-sampling/

Sharan, (2009). Quota Sampling. Slideshare.net. Retrieved 23 March 2017, from https://www.slideshare.net/sumanto123/quota-sampling

Trochim, M. K., & Donnelly, J. P. (2014). Nonprobability sampling. The Research Methods Knowledge Base website. From https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=0yxBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106&dq=Non+Probability+sampling.+The+Research+Methods+Knowledge+Base+website&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Non%20Probability%20sampling.%20The%20Research%20Methods%20Knowledge%20Base%20website&f=false

Yang, K., & Banamah, A. (2014). Quota sampling as an alternative to probability sampling? An experimental study. Sociological Research Online, 19(1), 29. doi: http://www.socresonline.org.uk/19/1/29.html

Paul J. Lavarakas, “Encyclopedia of Survey Research methods,” Volume 1 & 2

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