Category: Research study

Qualitative EITI Reporting

Qualitative EITI Report
Qualitative EITI Report

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Abstract

This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.

The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report

Introduction

The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.

On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).

ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).

EITI Background

In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.

The EITI Principles

According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).

The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.

EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).

Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations

The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:

  1. Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
  2. Strengthening public institutions.
  3. Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.

The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered.  An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).

The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting

As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include:  the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.

Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society

The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).

These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:

Identification

The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.

Agenda Setting

The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.

Public Education and Enlightenment

The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).

Agents of Social Mobilization and Change

The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.

Monitoring and Oversight

It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).

Advisory

Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.

Whistle Blowing

The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).

Observation

The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013).  In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.

Feedback

The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.

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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases

It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.

In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.

This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.

For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).

Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies

In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.

The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.

This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.

The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.

Discussion of Results

It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010).  The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).

Recommendation

Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.

Conclusion

In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.

The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.

References

Aaronson, S. A. (2011). Limited partnership: Business, government, civil society, and the public in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Public Administration & Development, 31(1), 50-63. doi:10.1002/pad.588

Calland, R., & Bentley, K. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Transparency and Accountability Initiatives: Freedom of Information. Development Policy Review, 31s69-s87. doi:10.1111/dpr.12020

Carbonnier, G., Brugger, F., & Krause, J. (2011). Global and Local Policy Responses to the Resource Trap. Global Governance, 17(2), 247-264.

Caspary, G. (2012). Practical Steps to Help Countries Overcome the Resource Curse: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Global Governance, 18(2), 171-184.

Disclosure as Governance: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and Resource Management in the Developing World. (2010). Global Environmental Politics, 10(3), 53-73.

Eigen, P. (2013). International Corruption: Organized Civil Society for Better Global Governance. Social Research, 80(4), 1287-1308.

Frynas, J. (2010). Corporate Social Responsibility and Societal Governance: Lessons from Transparency in the Oil and Gas SeWhat is Globalization? Journal of Business Ethics, 93163-179. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0559-1

Holden, W. N., & Jacobson, R. D. (2007). Mining amid armed conflict: nonferrous metals mining in the Philippines. Canadian Geographer, 51(4), 475-500. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2007.00193.x

Koch, L. C., Niesz, T., & McCarthy, H. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytical Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 57(3), 131-143.

Lehrer, M., & Delaunay, C. (2009). Multinational Enterprises and the Promotion of Civil Society: The Challenge for 21st Century Capitalism. California Management Review, 51(4), 126-147.

Magner, A. L. (2015). Drilling for Disclosure: Resource Extraction Issuer Disclosure and American Petroleum Institute v. SEC. Journal of Corporation Law, 40(2), 521-537.

Mejía Acosta, A. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Accountability and Transparency Initiatives: The Governance of Natural Resources. Development Policy Review, 31s89-s105. doi:10.1111/dpr.12021

Mouan, L. C. (2010). Exploring the potential benefits of Asian participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The case of China. Business Strategy & the Environment (John Wiley & Sons, Inc), 19(6), 367-376. doi:10.1002/bse.687

Murphy, E. M. (2012). Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers. Federal Register, 77(177), 56365-56419.

Nurse, C. (2007). Transparency in resource extraction. Accountancy, 139(1366), 38-39.

Pal, N., & Pantaleo, D. C. (2008). From Strategy to Execution: Turning Accelerated Global Change into Opportunity. Berlin: Springer.

PR, N. (2013, August 29). Caracal Energy Inc. – Caracal Listed as a Supporting Company of the EITI. PR Newswire UK Disclose.

Salazar, K. (2012). Establishment of the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee and Request for Nominees. Federal Register, 77(145), 44263-44264.

Schuler, D. A. (2012). A club theory approach to voluntary social programs: Multinational companies and the extractive industries transparency initiative. Business & Politics, 14(3), 1-24. doi:10.1515/bap-2012-0024

Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2009). Dilemmas and further debates in qualitative method. Education for Information, 27(1), 21-37.

Sovacool, B. K., & Andrews, N. (2015). Does transparency matter? Evaluating the governance impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia. Resources Policy, 45183-192. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.04.003

Topal, J., & Toledano, P. (2013). Why the Extractive Industry Should Support Mandatory Transparency: A Shared Value Approach. Business & Society Review (00453609), 118(3), 271-298. doi:10.1111/basr.12011

Walden, R. R., Jerome, R. N., & Miller, R. S. (2007). Utilizing case reports to build awareness of rare complications in critical care. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 95(1), 3-8.

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Civil Society Oversight Roles in EITI Reporting

Civil Society
Civil Society

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Abstract

This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.

The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report

Introduction

The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.

On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).

ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).

EITI Background

In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.

The EITI Principles

According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).

The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.

EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).

Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations

The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:

  1. Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
  2. Strengthening public institutions.
  3. Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.

The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered.  An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).

The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting

As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include:  the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).

This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.

Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society

The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).

These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:

Identification

The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.

Agenda Setting

The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.

Public Education and Enlightenment

The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).

Agents of Social Mobilization and Change

The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.

Monitoring and Oversight

It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).

Advisory

Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.

Whistle Blowing

The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).

Observation

The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013).  In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.

Feedback

The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.

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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases

It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.

In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.

This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.  

For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).

Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies

In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.

The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.

This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.

The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.

Discussion of Results

It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010).  The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).

Recommendation

Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).

Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.

Conclusion

In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard.  As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.

As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.

The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.

References

Aaronson, S. A. (2011). Limited partnership: Business, government, civil society, and the public in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Public Administration & Development, 31(1), 50-63. doi:10.1002/pad.588

Calland, R., & Bentley, K. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Transparency and Accountability Initiatives: Freedom of Information. Development Policy Review, 31s69-s87. doi:10.1111/dpr.12020

Carbonnier, G., Brugger, F., & Krause, J. (2011). Global and Local Policy Responses to the Resource Trap. Global Governance, 17(2), 247-264.

Caspary, G. (2012). Practical Steps to Help Countries Overcome the Resource Curse: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Global Governance, 18(2), 171-184.

Disclosure as Governance: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and Resource Management in the Developing World. (2010). Global Environmental Politics, 10(3), 53-73.

Eigen, P. (2013). International Corruption: Organized Civil Society for Better Global Governance. Social Research, 80(4), 1287-1308.

Frynas, J. (2010). Corporate Social Responsibility and Societal Governance: Lessons from Transparency in the Oil and Gas SeWhat is Globalization? Journal of Business Ethics, 93163-179. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0559-1

Holden, W. N., & Jacobson, R. D. (2007). Mining amid armed conflict: nonferrous metals mining in the Philippines. Canadian Geographer, 51(4), 475-500. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2007.00193.x

Koch, L. C., Niesz, T., & McCarthy, H. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytical Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 57(3), 131-143.

Lehrer, M., & Delaunay, C. (2009). Multinational Enterprises and the Promotion of Civil Society: The Challenge for 21st Century Capitalism. California Management Review, 51(4), 126-147.

Magner, A. L. (2015). Drilling for Disclosure: Resource Extraction Issuer Disclosure and American Petroleum Institute v. SEC. Journal of Corporation Law, 40(2), 521-537.

Mejía Acosta, A. (2013). The Impact and Effectiveness of Accountability and Transparency Initiatives: The Governance of Natural Resources. Development Policy Review, 31s89-s105. doi:10.1111/dpr.12021

Mouan, L. C. (2010). Exploring the potential benefits of Asian participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The case of China. Business Strategy & the Environment (John Wiley & Sons, Inc), 19(6), 367-376. doi:10.1002/bse.687

Murphy, E. M. (2012). Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers. Federal Register, 77(177), 56365-56419.

Nurse, C. (2007). Transparency in resource extraction. Accountancy, 139(1366), 38-39.

Pal, N., & Pantaleo, D. C. (2008). From Strategy to Execution: Turning Accelerated Global Change into Opportunity. Berlin: Springer.

PR, N. (2013, August 29). Caracal Energy Inc. – Caracal Listed as a Supporting Company of the EITI. PR Newswire UK Disclose.

Salazar, K. (2012). Establishment of the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee and Request for Nominees. Federal Register, 77(145), 44263-44264.

Schuler, D. A. (2012). A club theory approach to voluntary social programs: Multinational companies and the extractive industries transparency initiative. Business & Politics, 14(3), 1-24. doi:10.1515/bap-2012-0024

Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2009). Dilemmas and further debates in qualitative method. Education for Information, 27(1), 21-37.

Sovacool, B. K., & Andrews, N. (2015). Does transparency matter? Evaluating the governance impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia. Resources Policy, 45183-192. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.04.003

Topal, J., & Toledano, P. (2013). Why the Extractive Industry Should Support Mandatory Transparency: A Shared Value Approach. Business & Society Review (00453609), 118(3), 271-298. doi:10.1111/basr.12011

Walden, R. R., Jerome, R. N., & Miller, R. S. (2007). Utilizing case reports to build awareness of rare complications in critical care. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 95(1), 3-8.

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Human Dignity And Capital Punishment: Case Study

Human Dignity And Capital Punishment
Human Dignity And Capital Punishment

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Case Study: Human Dignity And Capital Punishment

Introduction

 Case study 2 describes human capital punishment for two Australian Citizens caught smuggling Heroin to Indonesia. Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were executed after receiving death sentence from an Indonesian court. 

Dignity refers to worth or value, therefore; human dignity refers to human worth and value.  There are various approaches of human dignity which are classified by Kirchhoffer into two categories. Category 1 refers to the understanding of human dignity that is based in belief that human value is high because they are human or they possess certain capacities that are absent in other creatures. In Category 2, human dignity understanding is based on their belief that dignity is acquired or lost through the individual own feelings or specific dignity bestowing behaviour (Dhai, 2013). This paper describes the dignity of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumaran in relation to their execution based on Kirchhoffer classification.

            Human dignity claims are mainly used to support or oppose death penalty. It has been argued that some acts such as homicide, death penalty are justified based on retributive punishment framework. Retribution involves respect for human autonomy and the decisions people make. It is also argued that death penalty is effective as it allows the relatives and friends of the victims find closure, facilitate emotional healing as they carry on with their lives (Jones, 2012).  However, is there a possibility that some victims are unfairly executed?  The main issue of significance in this case study 2 is that human life is sacred. It has inalienable dignity. In this regard, this paper explores the concepts of human dignity.  It aims at evaluating if human dignity lie in human life, in the capacity of the decisions made by human or in the societal judgement of their past behaviour (Roche, 2011).

Perspective 1A: “Human has Dignity Simply because they are Human Species”

 According to this perspective, human life is sacred. Most of the religious arguments fall into this perspective because they believe that human beings were created in the image of God.  Non-religious proponents argue that is natural to fight for survival of one’s species, thus; it human species have special value against any intrinsic value or instrumental values possessed by the other species. This indicates that human beings have inherent worth because they belong to human species (Rydberg & Pizarro, 2014).

Based on this perspective, the execution of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar in Indonesia devalued the aspects human dignity. This is because the value of human dignity is inherent is their lives and not their actions. According to religious arguments, people’s actions do not necessarily define their dignity.  It is not what people do or fail to which gives them dignity. It is the purpose of God, creator of the heaven and earth.  People’s action is shaped by circumstances they face (Zylberman, 2016).

Perspective IB “Human Beings have Inherent worth Due to their Distinctive and Special Abilities”

            This perspective interrelates with perspective IA in that all human are equal and possess inherent dignity. This perspective argues that human dignity arises from the fact that they have special distinctive attributes and special abilities. This is supported by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that human beings value is intrinsic in all members of the society (Trojan & Salfati, 2010).

This implies that humans are to live a life as predefined by the societal morals and self-consciousness. This perspective is used to promulgate the aspect of moral values in the society, failure to which the person is punished according the punishment equivalent to the value violated.  Similar to perspective IA, it argues that due to the high capacities and specific attributes possessed by human beings, then they can be rehabilitated through proper treatment and training.  This perspective is supported by the case study as Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar has reformed completely; which indicates that their execution was unjustified (Muftic & Hunt, 2012).

2 A “dignity can be acquired or lost through sense of self-worth”

This perspective understands the concepts of human dignity as some type of pride in one self and conscious sense of an individual’s worth as human being, which enables them to live a meaningful life.  The way a person view themselves impacts on their life experiences. People who lack self-worth   tend to struggle to find happiness and success.  This makes them engage in activities that deviate from the society norms, affecting their relationship with the other people.  It leads to further misery and struggle.  However, this does not reduce their human dignity because it is innate (Kirchengast, 2010).

This implies that it was important for the Indonesian society to challenge their thinking.  For example, what criteria were it used to reach to an agreement that Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were harmful people in the society? Did they have evidence on their past actions that indicated that they are extremely violent and threat to the society?  The negative attitude accorded to these Australian citizens did not make sense because their verdict was made with an assumption that these individuals cannot transform, and that they will always be in their worst behaviours which is erroneous (McCormick, 2015).

2B “Dignity can be acquired or lost through Moral or Immoral Behaviour.

This perspective focuses much on the way the society judge’s one based on their past behaviour and not by their self-worth. Some people are the society’s hero because they lived selfless lives and lived their lives in pursuit of high ideals and exemplary conduct. These include people such as Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Mother Teresa. Others may be judged as to have lost their dignity due to their violent criminal acts (Cssidy, 2012). In this case Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar were engaged in criminal activities of trafficking heroin. According to the Indonesian society, substance abuse is done by people who have an intent of becoming violent and harming others. The society has negative attitudes towards these two people as they perceive them as threat. For instance, the Indonesian government to surround Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar with military security style during transfer indicated that they perceived these people’s character as extremely dangerous which is not true (Kirchhoffer, 2011).

It can be argued that the death sentence is a form of punishment that removes bad/evil people in the society; which aims at increasing survival of good species; the outcomes of this practice are futile.  An effective form of punishment should have a purpose to treat and restoration of the desired behaviour and not to kill. On the other hand, Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar determination to die  with dignity so as to prevent their parent unnecessary distress indicates that they had gained sense of self-worth, and passionate enough to ensure that their relatives reach in closure  and vindication (Mattson & Clark, 2011).

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Social Norms, Attitudes, and Other Circumstances Impact On the Aspects of Human Dignity

Proponents of death sentence argue that this practice protects the society from evil people, who inflict harm and distract the society harmony. According the social attitudes; it is the role of each and every government to protect its society from violent and heinous acts that would erode the society moral behaviour. 

All people have the right to live in a safe environment, without the fear that their children will become drug addicts or die of addiction. Removing these people from the society is a measure to maintain public safety. Additionally, seeing people get executed, it deter other youths from practicing such acts (Ryan, 2016).

            Additionally, the society ethics is embedded on the beliefs and ideas if what is wrong or right, good and bad. Human dignity is embedded in the social relationships satisfaction and attitudes held by the society. In addition, it is embedded on the patterns of behaviour that are believed by the society as they bring in harmony and cooperation, fairness and justice.  The beliefs and ideas of human dignity are analysed, articulated and interpreted according to the moral thinkers of the society.

Most of the westernized society are characterised by organized functioning human communities. The ethical systems have undoubtedly evolved their values, values and principles that regulate human behaviour (Kirchhoffer & Dierickx, 2011). Based on the Indonesian society values and believes, then Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar punishment was justified.

The main argument for the ruling by the Indonesian court is that it aimed at deterring such actions from happening again. In my perspective, death penalty does not seem to deter people from committing violent crimes. It only deters the likelihood of other criminals being caught and punished.  There lacks a scientific proof that the death penalty resulted to greater deterrent effect than other forms of punishment (Kirchhoffer & Dierickx, 2012).

Therefore, the execution of these two prisoners was harsh punishment on the individuals but not on crime.  The impact underlying societal expectation and values cannot be overlooked. This has resulted in education frameworks that ignore the fundamental values of human dignity but focuses more on wealth acquisition.  For this reason, the society has failed to value life and to cherish human beings above their possessions, power, desires and pleasures (Wierenga, 2011).

Human Dignity is Multidimensional

Humans possess multidimensional qualities including the emotional, physical, social, spiritual, symbolic and interpersonal qualities.  According to Macquarrie, humanity is unfinished product that is moving into possibilities that are still unfolded.  Therefore, during these developments and concepts, human dignity concepts tend to conflict each other.  Human dignity is multidimensional.  It can be described in four different ways, which sometimes they conflict to one another. Human dignity is something that human already have and also something that they strive to acquire (Lee, 2014).

Based on International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), all people that have limited liberty must be treated with liberty and respect (1 A). This affirms the argument in that dignity lie in human.  This ideology acknowledges the complexity of being human and the multidimensional aspects involved. Therefore, human beings are not to be reduced to one type of level of functioning (Vanhaelemeesch & Vander Beken, 2014).

Where a deviation occurs, it is important to understand that all humans are equal. It is important to also acknowledge that dignity as an aspect that can be acquired or lost through sense of self-worth (2A).   Therefore, it is likely that Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar past actions were due to loss of self-worth, but through rehabilitative processes, their self-worth would have been restored. However, their loss of sense of dignity cannot be equated to their actual possession of dignity (Strelan & Prooijen, 2013).

The quadrant 1B argues that Human beings have inherent worth due to their distinctive and special abilities.Perspective 2B states that dignity can be acquired or lost through moral or immoral behaviour which according to my perspective, they do not support death penalty as human beings have unique capacity of being rehabilitated and become reformed. Therefore, it is rather obvious to state that if human life is complex than on single dimension, then it is unfair to just the person’s dignity based on one dimension.  Although it is important to acknowledge that a person’s moral action indicates their dignity orientation, it is also important to recognize that there is chance for change, growth, compassion, forgiveness and reconciliation (Matthews, 2014).

Conclusion

            The criminal justice system should maintain law and order in the society by punishing the offenders. However, harsh and unjustified punishments will not restore the victim’s behaviours. In my perspective, capital punishment must be eradicated and replaced with rehabilitative services that challenge, encourage and reward the offenders for their transformed attitudes and behaviours.

Most of the offenders engage in criminal activities to seek means of survival. Empowering them with skills will help them get employment, and live by example in the society. In this case, the execution of Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumar was unjustified as their human dignity was not protected. I believe these past experiences have facilitated change in such policies that devalue the dignity of human.

References

Cassidy, J. (2012). Hollow Avowals of Human Rights Protection – Time for an Australian Federal Bill Of Rights? Deakin Law Review, 13(2), 131-176.

Dhai, A. (2013). Human Dignity in Contemporary Ethics by David G Kirchhoffer. S Afr J BL, 6(2), 74. http://dx.doi.org/10.7196/sajbl.294341..com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5913723&site=ehost-live,

JONES, D. (2012). HUMAN DIGNITY IN BIOETHICS AND LAW by Charles Foster. New Blackfriars, 94(1049), 114-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.2012.01524_2.x

Kirchengast, T. (2010). The Landscape of Victim Rights in Australian Homicide Cases–Lessons from the International Experience. Oxford Journal Of Legal Studies, 31(1), 133-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqq031

Kirchhoffer, D. (2011). Bioethics and the Demise of the Concept of Human Dignity. Human Reproduction & Genetic Ethics, 17(2), 141-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/hrge.v17i2.141

Kirchhoffer, D. & Dierickx, K. (2011). Human dignity and human tissue: a meaningful ethical relationship?. Journal Of Medical Ethics, 37(9), 552-556. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jme.2010.041509

Kirchhoffer, D. & Dierickx, K. (2012). Human dignity and consent in research biobanking. S Afr J BL, 5(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.7196/sajbl.237

Lee, C. (2014). Inter-war Penal Policy and Crime in England: The Dartmoor Convict Prison Riot, 1932. Social History, 39(2), 303-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03071022.2014.896548

MATTHEWS, P. (2014). HUMAN DIGNITY IN CONTEMPORARY ETHICS by David G. Kirchhoffer, Teneo Press, New York, 2013, pp. xii + 356, £16.00, pbk. New Blackfriars, 96(1061), 122-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nbfr.12103_9

Mattson, D. & Clark, S. (2011). Human dignity in concept and practice. Policy Sci, 44(4), 303-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11077-010-9124-0

McCormick, P. (2015). Book Review: Human Dignity in Contemporary Ethics. By David G. Kirchhoffer. Theological Studies, 76(4), 895-896. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040563915605267r

Muftic, L. & Hunt, D. (2012). Victim Precipitation: Further Understanding the Linkage Between Victimization and Offending in Homicide. Homicide Studies, 17(3), 239-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767912461785

Roche, D. (2011). The Evolving Definition of Restorative Justice. Contemporary Justice Review, 4(3/4),

Ryan, P. (2016). CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. Quadrant Magazine, 50(1/2), 127-128. Stapleton, P., & Whitehead, M. (2014). Dysfunctional Eating in an Australian Community Sample: The Role of Emotion Regulation, Impulsivity, and Reward and Punishment Sensitivity. Australian Psychologist, 49(6), 358-368. doi:10.1111/ap.12070.

Rydberg, J. & Pizarro, J. (2014). Victim Lifestyle as a Correlate of Homicide Clearance. Homicide Studies, 18(4), 342-362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767914521813

Strelan, P., & Prooijen, J. (2013). Retribution and forgiveness: The healing effects of punishing for just deserts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(6), 544-553. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1964. Weatherburn, D. (2014). Strategies for managing criminal justice systems. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 53(1), 67.

Trojan, C. & Salfati, C. (2010). A Multidimensional Analysis of Criminal Specialization Among Single-Victim and Serial Homicide Offenders. Homicide Studies, 14(2), 107-131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767910364936

Vanhaelemeesch, D. & Vander Beken, T. (2014). Between convict and ward: the experiences of people living with offenders subject to electronic monitoring. Crime Law Soc Change, 62(4), 389-415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10611-014-9535-5

Wierenga, A. (2011). Transitions, local culture and human dignity: Rural young men in a changing world. Journal of Sociology, 47(4), 371-387. doi:10.1177/144078311420791.

Zylberman, A. (2016). Human Dignity. Philosophy Compass, 11(4), 201-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12317

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Current Product Offering within a Fashion Retailer

Fashion Retailer
Fashion Retailer

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A Report of Research and Analysis a Current Product Offering within a Fashion Retailer that has a UK Store Presence

Introduction

 With changing global fashion trends, the clothing and textile industry has undoubtedly become one of the most dynamic and competitive as well as rapidly changing sectors. This has prompted many fashion retailers across the world to embark on regular product offering as well as global sourcing in order achieve competitive advantage in the international market for them to remain relevant (Akhil, 2015).  The aims and objectives of this report is to research and analyse a current product offering for a fashion retailer that has a UK store presence and make recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season (Spring/summer ‘17) for an international market.  

This is done with an emphasis on produce Illustrator designs for the following season (Spring/summer ‘17) within the allocated budget of £600K, which are appropriate for an international market. In addition, an assortment or range plan is produced in an Excel spreadsheet to indicate budget spend. Through this approach it is possible to present the buy per garment that includes a number of aspects with regards to the designed garment including volume (ranking), spend, distribution, attributes as well as sourcing country. Finally, the report will provide analysis of sourcing criteria with recommendations including a valid critical path.

Overview of current offer

The fashion retail to be considered in this report is the H&M, which has grown from a single women’s wear shop in Västerås, Sweden, and has nowadays extensively expanded its operations across the world to have presence across international market through its six different brands and 4,000 fashion retail stores all around the world. Six independent brands are the main outlets through which H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB comprises six runs its day to day operations in marketing and sale of fashion products, and these brands are: H&M, COS, Cheap Monday, Monki, Weekday, and & Other Stories (H&M, 2016).

The team which has been mandated with the function of innovating and developing H&M’s fashion designs has been playing an imperative role in creating sustainable fashion for all, while striving to ensure that they are always offered for sale at the best price and quality. The collections of fashion designs that are developed by H&M designers include everything from quintessential functional and basics sportswear for children, teenagers, women, and men, to dazzling party collections for every occasion or season (H&M, 2016).

In addition, to shoes, bags, clothes, jewellery, underwear and make up as well as fashionable interiors for children and adults. The variety and width of the H&M collections is an indication that customers are always able to find something to suit their wardrobe as well as their style. The fashion has since inception tremendously expanded its operations globally and nowadays it has presence across many parts of the world through the H&M stores in 61 markets worldwide. In addition, the fashion retailer has an extensive online presence through which it makes a significant proportion of merchandise mainly because of its online shopping in 32 countries (H&M, 2016).

The current garments on offering which are under consideration are the special ladies’ dresses fashion collections for the Conscious Exclusive 2016 in the month of May

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Analysis on current garments

The current garments on offering which are under consideration are the special ladies’ dresses fashion collections for the Conscious Exclusive 2016 in the month of May.

The description of the current garment under consideration is as follows:

Title: Conscious Exclusive 2016

Price: £499

Description: A sleeveless round neck wedding or ready to wear dress made from two layers, whereby the outside layer is made from organic silk while the inner layer made from Tencel. The dress has been subjected to further decoration through embellishment with Art Deco inspired embroidery of glass beads that have been made from recycled glass. The dress was offered for sale in April 7, 2016 and the offer is still ongoing (H&M, 2016).

An illustration of the picture is shown the picture below:               

Product Development

This part of the report will cover the Illustrator proposals for the fashion designs envisaged to be developed for next season (Spring/summer ‘17) for an international market. As a result, this part will be covered in two sections, the first one discussing the Illustrator proposals as well as the fashion design specifications for the considered garment, and the second part covering the assortment or range plan.   

Illustrator proposals

Through the illustrator proposals, designs are produced within the allocated budget of £600K for SS’17 season for an international market. This will include CAD drawings for each design showing two views (front & back) including colour ways or prints. Furthermore, specifications for each selected design will be provided starting with thumbnail sketches and using the mood boards as inspiration (Mayer, 2014).        

      

Assortment plan

The assortment range plan in this report was included for the purpose of compiling a collection of garments that was commercially acceptable within the design and financial parameters, before the mass production can commence. However, there are some procedures that is needed to be included and stringently followed in the assortment or range plan for the purpose of making sure that the buyer can have a glimpse or insight into the anticipated or planned collection offering.

For instance, the assortment plan has to include a number of factors of the production including the number of garments to be included in the collection range. In addition, there must also be inclusion of different types of garments or collection (fashion to classic, tops to bottom styles) as well as specific styles which are to be included e.g. color and fabrics used to make the garment. Furthermore, the assortment plan should also include the price at which each garment is to be sold, the cost price of producing each garment, sizes included, among others (Miller, 2008; Mayer, 2014).

Recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season for an International market (Spring/Summer ‘17)

In order to ensure that the most appropriate recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season for an International market (Spring/Summer ‘17), there is need to undertake an assortment fashion forecasting based on the prevailing fashion trends. This is attributable to the fact that fashion forecasting plays an important role in determining the fashion trends in future by focusing on upcoming fashion and lifestyle trends (Mayer, 2014).

For instance, the H&M must be able to specifically focus on fashion trends and predict the styles, fabrics, colours that have a high likelihood of presentation on the runaway as well as in the stores for the fashion events that are to take place in the near future. This concept of fashion forecasting applies across the entire fashion industry including mass market, ready-to-wear, haute couture as well as street wear (Miller, 2008).

Therefore, the product can be progressed for the following season for an International market through an appropriate and perfect merchandise mix by ensuring that the colours of leather and that of the fabric used are perfectly matched with a consideration of trending colours for the international market (Mayer, 2014). In addition, the product can also be progressed by accessorizing it in order to make it more appealing. However, the accessories to be used must be carefully selected bearing in mind the prevailing fashion, style, and social trends.

For example, the product can be progressed by decorating it through embellishment with Art Deco inspired embroidery of glass beads that have been made from recycled glass. Furthermore, variations of the bound cuff seams, necklines as well as hems can also be differentially used to give the dress distinctive appearances depending on the fashion trends. Moreover, inclusion of a side and/or arm mesh as well as invisible zip is the other way through which this product can be progressed (NPR, 2011).

Sourcing summary

Global Sourcing and International Trade

Global sourcing has become an important aspect of fashion industry in the international trade, and it involves the selection of a supplier of either a product or the raw materialcomponents and services used in the make up and delivery of the products. As a result, true global sourcing is when a business manufactures and sells a consistent product globally, sourcing some or the entire product from third parties chosen to enable cost-effective and efficient sourcing and coordinated globally.  

Global sourcing in contemporary international business is not solely concerned about reduction of production costs but also it focuses on improved on the supply and demand chains of finished products as well as raw materials. However, as observed in illustrations provided in the diagrams shown below it is important to note that, previously global sourcing was all about cost. As a result, the objective was to source product or components from a country with low labour costs with an ultimate goal of gaining cost advantage.

There has been changing trends in global sourcing whereby according to Kurt Salmon (2012) book acting as a global sourcing reference; the largest manufacturers of clothing and textiles are shown in the table shown below. The ranking is done based on the value of apparel exportation in terms of millions of U.S. Dollars expressed as percentages.

Source: Kurt Salmon Global Sourcing Reference, 11th Edition

In contrast, despite the fact that top apparel exporters are located in Asia most retailers are either found in the Europe or U.S. For instance, according to Salmon (2012), 88 per cent of clothing retailers are located within Europe and China is ranked as their number one sourcing destination. However, there has been an increasing trend of production costs over the recent past, where production costs have increased 160 per cent since 2005.

A comparison of production costs across the world reveals sharp variations which an important determinant of the choices of sourcing countries for fashion retailers in Europe and the U.S. For example, Bangladesh and Vietnam have lowest PCI’s of all sourcing countries. However, Southern China greater costs than Central USA meaning that specific locations or regions within a country also be considered but not generally considering the country as a whole.

The emerging markets are also playing a significant role where Ethiopia could be one to watch since many fashion retailers have expressed interest (i.e. H&M, Tesco & Primark are all running pilots) in the country whose attraction to fashion retailers is attributed to its lower social living costs and well established transportation infrastructure. The table below ranks countries based on their PCI

Source: Kurt Salmon Global Sourcing Reference, 11th Edition

Moreover, with regards to cost there have been significant changes in the global sourcing trends. For instance, according to fashion price tracker figures by RetailWeek Analytics shows that there has been significantly changing production on markdown expressed in percentage among the leading fashion retailers with online presence.

Source: Retail Week Analytics

Global sourcing also involve the issues of quality, ethics and social responsibility as well as supply chain management as discussed in the sections that follows.

Quality

  • No longer disposable fashion attitude
  • Ensures competitor advantage

As our business has become more fashion centric, we have been able to source products from Asia that are not just low cost, but also fit the needs of the customer. But perceived quality continues to be a factor – certainly globally sourced goods are seen by consumers to be inferior when tagged with “Made in China” when in fact the quality is higher than comparable goods sourced in the UK.

Ethical & Social Responsibility

  • Not just human rights and community development issues.
  • Concerns for security, carbon footprint, bribery, corruption and money laundering.
  • Media has placed this trend at the top of both retailer’s and consumers concerns.

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Supply Chain Management

Supply Chain Management (SCM) is a network of connected and inter-dependent organisations mutually and co-operatively working together in order to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users. Key Supply Chain Management (SCM) ensures that the supply chain process starts and finishes with the consumer by making sure that each interface in the supply chain represents: 1) movement of goods; 2) information flow; and 3) purchase and sale. As a result, strategic SCM consists of developing smarter ways to choose who to buy from and sell to your business partners.

Importance of the Supply Chain Management

It is aimed to achieve the following benefits for the company:

  • Competitive Advantage

Supply chain management is now well established as a key source of competitive advantage, and the competitiveness achieved in International market is without any doubt the most imperative gain attributable to global sourcing. However, this is usually based upon consumers’ perceptions of the added value aspects of the retailer’s overall offering (Mayer, 2014).

For major success, businesses need to achieve a clear performance differential over competition   on factors that are important to target customers. The most successful methods are built upon some combination of 3 advantages: 1) being better in providing superior quality or service; 2) being faster in responding to customers needs; as well as 3) being closer to establishing closer relationships with customers (Miller, 2008).

  • Improving Financial Performance (Sales & Profits)

This determines the overall performance of a company and it can subsequently be measured through a number of methods including: 1) Financial Review; 2) Quality performance and practice; 3) Delivery and physical flow of stock; and 4) Information sharing, extended relationships.

  • Consumer & Supplier Loyalty

The “value” may either take the form of selling undifferentiated products at below competitors’ prices or unique benefits that justify premium pricing. The value chain may be used to identify and understand the sources of competitive advantage and how they relate to creating added value for customers

As a result, Porter’s 5 Forces Model should be used by fashion retailers prior to choosing companies or partners to collaborate with in their global sourcing strategy in order to determine the extent of factors that directly influence business including:

  • Threat new entrants
  • Threat of substitutes
  • Bargaining power of buyers
  • Bargaining power of suppliers
  • Degree of rivalry

Proposed sourcing strategy

This part focuses on a discussion providing an analysis of sourcing criteria as well as recommendations on how the product could be progressed for the following season for an International market (Spring/Summer ‘17) including a valid critical path. The proposed sourcing strategy will mainly emphasize on the supply base analysis and the appropriate and valid critical path as discussed in sections below:

Supply Base Analysis

  • Current sourcing
    • Brief overview for current product

The current product is usually made of a mixture of fabrics whereby the shell of the garment is made from 60 % leather (which has been ethically sourced from Nepal) and 34% of Bamboo Viscose (Mesh) as well as 4 % of Elastane. In addition, the lining of the current product consists of 100% Bamboo Viscose. The current product is a leather panelled dress, and the assortment consists of sleeveless, short-sleeved as well as one-sleeved leather panelled dresses.

  • Proposed sourcing
    • Sourcing analysis for each garment, consider components

The proposed sourcing including H&M and Nepal will involve ethical sourcing of leather in Nepal through a partner based in the country. In addition, the processing of the bamboo viscose will also continue in Nepal and Bangladesh. However, the subsequent tanning or processing of the leather and the bamboo viscose will be shifted to Bangladesh which has the lowest Production Cost Index (PCI) of all sourcing countries across the world. Furthermore, the production of the garments upon approval of the designs will also continue in Bangladesh, and the finished products subsequently shipped to Europe.

  • PEST analysis for sourcing countries

The political situation in both Nepal and Bangladesh pose a risk to the sourcing activities undertaken considering that both countries are not significantly politically meaning that political upheavals may arise at any time and hinder production. There is also technology risk since both countries have not significantly adopted technology in the production processes meaning that the rate of production can not reach the level of the countries where technology has been significantly embraced.

  • Rationale for sourcing choice

A comparison of production costs across the world reveals sharp variations which an important determinant of the choices of sourcing countries for fashion retailers in Europe and the U.S. For example, many Asian countries have low Production Cost Index (PCI) with Bangladesh having the lowest Production Cost Index (PCI) of all sourcing countries across the world. Thus, these emerging markets are playing a significant role for many fashion retailers by acting sourcing countries, which is attributed to its lower social living costs and well established transportation infrastructure. As a result, there will b reduced production costs.

Critical Path   

The validated and appropriate critical path will be provided in the template shown below:

Conclusion                                                 

In conclusion, it can be observed that it is possible for a fashion product on offering by fashion retailers to be adequately analyzed and Illustrator proposals as well as assortment plans designed leading to the development of new garments which are more improved that those offered. However, in order for this to take place successfully the fashion retailer must establish an appropriate fashion forecasting trend mechanisms as well as an effective global sourcing and supply chain management systems.      

References

Akhil J. K. (2015). Fashion Forecasting. Retrieved from  http://libraries.uc.edu/libraries/daap/resources/researchguides/design/forecasting.html  

Birnbaum, D. (2000). Global Guide to Winning the Great Garment War.

Handfield, R. & Nichols, E. (1999). Introduction to Supply Chain Management.

H&M (2016). Conscious Exclusive 2016. Retrieved from http://about.hm.com/en/ImageGallery/fashion.html

Keiser, S. J. & Garner, M. B. (2008). Beyond Design: the Synergy of Apparel Product Development. New York, NY: Fairchild Publications.

Kerkhoff, G. et al. (2006).  Global Sourcing: Opportunities for the Future. Weinheim Düsseldorf: Wiley-VCH.

Kim, E., Fiore, A. M., & Kim, H. (2013). Fashion Trends: Analysis and Forecasting. Berg. ISBN 9780857853158.

Mayer, L. (2014) “Q&A with the Founder of SHIPSHOW”. Retrieved April 21, 2014.

Miller, C. C. (2008). Designers of High Fashion Enter the Age of High Tech: New York Times . 8 Sept. 2008. <http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/08/technology/08trend.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0>.

Monczka, T. & Handfield, T. (2005). Purchasing and Supply Management, 3rd edition. New York, NY: Thomson South-Western.

NPR (2011) Forecasting Fashion Trends: NPR. NPR: National Public Radio: News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts: NPR. Web. 10 Apr. 2011. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1432978>.

Roth, T. & Pullman, G. (2008). Unraveling the Food Supply Chain: Strategic Insights from China and the 2007 Pet Food Recalls. Journal of Supply Chain Management, Vol. 44 Issue 1, pp. 22-39.

Websites

www.clothesource.net

www.labourbehindthelabel.org

www.businessoffashion.com

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Research Paper Outline Sample Assignment

Research Paper Outline
Research Paper Outline

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Research Paper Outline

Abstract

This section will adequately pre-tell all about the paper/study. In particular, it will be a summary of how the Department of Homeland Security remains the great leader with the great demands of duties and responsibility ranging from airport security to securing and monitoring the borders including national disaster response even without being affected by the size capacity. It will summarize the findings of the research in the simplest way, with no technical words. In other words, this section relates.

Introduction

This is the vital part of the paper in which the problem of the research is presented and clarified. This section contains the thesis statement of the research (Altinay, 2015). Department of Homeland Security plays a vital role in ensuring that all the security issues within the countries border. In fact, their core duties are border security, customs, and emergency management and in most cases they find themselves with limited resources.

Nevertheless, without being affected by the size and capacity, the Department of Homeland Security remains the great leader with the great demands of duties and responsibility ranging from airport security to securing and monitoring the borders including national disaster response.

This section also discusses the relevance of the Department of Homeland Security in the social work, and most importantly it contains the research question. Thus, it is imperative to analyze the relationship between the size, capacity, and the Department of Homeland duties and responsibility.

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Literature Review

This section  gives some scholars recent literature on the topic of interest. Preferably, this should be less than five years old work. The literature will be connected and comprehensive to the topic. The researcher will explain how different variables affect the duties and responsibility and the Department of Homeland Security. A critical analysis and summary of the literature should be included, and the quality of the literature should be included (Altinay, 2015).

Methods

The research design used in the paper should be provided, and citations provided supporting the type and analysis technique utilized. The research at this point should include or explain the data analysis method used in collecting data from the Department of Homeland Security. If human subjects were used, in this section the technique used to protect them should be addressed (Mackey, 2015). The researcher should explain the type of measure used, and if possible, account for the survey utilized. Moreover, statistical procedures used should be described.

Sample

This is a subsection of methodology, and it presents the characteristics of the sample data. The technique used to select the data will be given and justification of its selection. That is, the researcher adopts a method that is convenient, cheap and results in a sample that represents the entire population.

Analysis

This section will exclusively explain different statistical approaches or techniques that were adopted in exploring the data. For instance, the descriptive analysis will be performed at the Department of Homeland Security data to estimate measures of central tendency and dispersion. Different techniques like correlation, regression modeling, and chi-square can be used in investigating the relationship between the variables. Thus, this section will give in detail statistical aspect that needs to be derived from the Department of Homeland Security data.

Results

This will contain a visual presentation of the Department of Homeland Security data. That is, different statistical presentation techniques like graphs, tables among others should be used in data presentation. Excessive use of tables and graphs should be avoided. A short narrative explanation of the findings should be included. Note, at this point all the results should be presented in an APA format. The tables and figures also should be formatted in APA writing style.

Discussion

This should contain an exclusive explanation of the results of analysis of the Department of Homeland Security data. The discussion should be based on the literature on the study. Furthermore, this is the section that gives rise to the conclusion.

Conclusion and Recommendation

This section presents the implications of the Department of Homeland Security in connection with the literature review of the study. If the implications are not there in the literature review, the researcher should cite new literature here. The strength and limitations of the study should be addressed well in this section. The researcher should give or suggest the direction of future research in the Department of Homeland Security.

References

Altinay, L., Paraskevas, A., & Jang, S. S. (2015). Planning research in hospitality and tourism. Routledge. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=98XMCgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=importance+of+introduction+section+in+research+paper&ots=2CkKNtvyVi&sig=47QiHmucOFJk9rqhcmfezaSc9_s

Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2015). Second language research: Methodology and design. Routledge. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=jDg-CgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=sections+of+a+research+paper&ots=uH4_8vIg6I&sig=GUVCVVa4lT9VYGD2QEZ8d79pncE

Thomas, J. R., Silverman, S., & Nelson, J. (2015). Research Methods in Physical Activity, 7E. Human Kinetics. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3FR1CQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=research+paper+format&ots=ltml1VKKVF&sig=iajRzRO4-FCU87a-ypIbdGaHdO8

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Ethics of Sex Selection: Research Paper

Sex Selection
Sex Selection

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Sex Selection

Introduction

            For decades, sex selection has been a controversial issue. Choosing the sex of a child is often viewed as a justifiable act since there is no harm done to anyone. I believe that gender selection creates balance in a family and it is culturally viewed as a desirable practice that seeks to  fulfill social norms. However, there are ethicists who believe that sex selection reinforces the idea of sexual discrimination within our societies (Caulfield & Brownsword, 2012).

This explains why there are renewed efforts from civil societies and government to analyze arguments presented by different authors who either support or oppose the idea of  sex selection. 

This essay analyzes the meaning of human dignity from two different perspectives. Furthermore, the essay examines how human dignity is defined by our expression of choices and as an inherent value of the society. Based on a case study, the essay describes the social attitudes, norms and circumstance that influence such choices, and their impact on our understanding of human dignity. The essay presents justifications of particular actions concerning sex selection and analyzes some of the features of human dignity that can be put at risk due to actions arising from these two perspectives mentioned therein above.

The concept of human dignity

Human dignity is defined based on the belief that dignity is inherent; hence, human beings posses specific capabilities that are not found in other creatures. It is these features that help to distinguish human beings from other creatures. However, choosing a child’s sex does not define the inherent dignity of human beings. Permitting gender selection is considered as discrimination against a specific gender making it less valuable (Chapman &Benn, 2013).

There are various social reasons for sex selection. Some of these reasons include having a family balance, replacing the deceased child, cultural reasons et cetera. However, these reasons do not define human dignity especially in situations where boys are preferred more than girls. (Kalfoglou et al, 2013).

Kalfoglou et al (2013) views sex selection as an idea that reinforces sexual discrimination. As a result, human dignity is viewed as a situation where a certain gender is prevented from existing and the action is perceived to be justifiable because most people have not been victims of this cruelty. Therefore, individuals created by choice have do not have a reason to complain.

In spite of the reasons that seek to justify sex selection, it is considered to undermine human dignity; thus, causing harm to the wider society. Sex selection has often led to gender disparities in many countries especially in Asian countries such as China and India. This trend has led to patriarchal societal agreements perceived to discriminate girls and women (Mudde, 2010).

The social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective

Due to advanced technology, sex selection culture has become popular and this has had a negative impact on females. Parents who are able to access technology have the ability of controlling the sex of their children; hence, they are able to escape the societal stigma of failing to give birth to a son. Many parents avoid giving birth to girls since they are viewed as individuals not worth living .Parents perceive that sex selection gives them the ability to choose what type of children they want in terms of sex. However, this process equates children to products (Webb, 2014).

Sex selection can make parents not to accept some of their shortcomings; hence, lowering the child’s self esteem. Having a strong preference for a specific sex can cause harm for the unwanted sex including rejection and killings to avoid societal blames and eliminate shame. However, proponents of this idea argue that it is normal for such ideas to be rejected at the first instance especially when people are unfamiliar with the idea.

Those opposing the idea of sex selection argue that that having children is not a right that one can put conditions to as children should be viewed as gifts from God (De Melo-Martín, 2013). These arguments are based on our cultural beliefs.

According to Caulfield & Brownsword (2012), traditional patterns of giving gifts recommend that a gift should be taken without putting any condition to it. A gift is something should be accepted unconditionally and the same case applies to children. From a cultural perspective, sex selection promotes the idea of treating children as a commodity, which is more or less similar to buying and selling of children. Choosing some of the features one wants is acceptable only to products like cars or other commodities, but this concept does not apply to human beings. Therefore, sex selection is often used to discriminate a specific gender.

Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity

Proponents of sex selection argue that everyone has the right to live his life as he pleases so as long as the person does not cause harm or infringe upon other peoples’ rights. The harm principle implies that individuals opposing sex selection need to prove that the action is going to cause harm to others.  In this case, sex selection does not cause harm to anybody. Proponents of sex selection argue that the practice is considered harmful based on sociological and psychological assumptions .They further argue that sex selection is an act that is contrary to religious or moral beliefs (Smolin, 2013).

A report by The Task Force on ethics and laws highlights the common objection arguments used to reject the idea of sex selection. The report indicates that sex selection is compared to mocking God. However, such arguments have been applied to all medical innovations. . It started by rejecting the use of chloroform to relieve pain associated with childbirth. This act was viewed as going against God’s will. Such arguments also applied to the use of inoculation (Li & Pantano, 2013).

Ironically, previous medical innovations viewed as going against God’s will have become part of acceptable medical practices; hence, such objections have not been taken seriously. In fact, such arguments are considered as religious claims .Proponents of sex selection argue that individuals should only refrain from the idea if it contravenes their religious beliefs, but laws should not be imposed on people based on other people’s religious views (Dondorp et al, 2013).

Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective

            Defining human dignity based on our expression of choices affects public opinion about such ideas. If these perspectives are not comprehensively analyzed through research, public opinion will be flawed. The main concern is that people can use limited philosophical analysis to influence policy discussions .

The definition of human dignity should not be derived from the fact that it is an individual choice, but the practice should be viewed from both public and professional bioethical discussions as recommended by Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproduction (Medicine, 2015).

Human dignity as a societal inherent value

In the second perspective, it is worth noting that the society often values children’s inherent worth. This limits some of the parents’ choices regarding gender selection. Parents who consider gender selections are said not to uphold societal norms and values which is the societal description for human dignity. According to McGowan & Sharp (2013), parents who select their children’s sex because of non-medical reasons are considered to be immoral in the eyes of the society.

From this perspective, human dignity is viewed as pride in oneself or having the sense of self worth as a human being to live a meaningful life .Therefore, any situation that compromises or humiliates this position is considered as a threat to human dignity. Choosing a particular gender over the other for non-medical reasons places expectations on a specific child, and this fails to recognize the personhood of an individual.

Therefore, sex selection fails to adhere to individual inherent characteristics .Children are often viewed as their parent’s property yet they are their own person .Putting too much expectations on the selected children does not give them the respect they deserve; hence, making them not to be autonomous as human beings are supposed to be (Claassens et al., 2013).

Parents who select the sex of their children view their children as a different person instead of the individual the child is suppose to be. Wudarczyk et al (2013) argues that choosing the sex of a child is failing to respect the human intrinsic values of the individual child. In summary, children need to be valued based on their intrinsic worth as human beings. In other words, the values of children should not be attached to specific characteristics.

Social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective

In western societies, there is no preferred sex, but selection of sex is based on creating gender balance in the family by having both boys and girls. These common occurrences are observed in Australia, Sweden, and the UK. Even though sex selection does not have negative effects in these countries, Asian countries like China, Korea and India are faced with challenges associated with sex selection due to cultural beliefs. These countries prefer boys to girls and this has led to  more than 10 million abortions within the last 20 years (Moskovian, 2013).

Activists in Asia are calling for the ban of sex selection. However, due to the different reasons parents in the UK and India have for choosing the sex of their children, banning sex selection which is a worldwide practice will not change the situation especially in India. So long as there are religious and economic incentives attached to boys, banning sex selection will not have any effect especially in Asian countries.

Given the fact that majority of UK population would still prefer their first children to be boys, sex selection technology will be misused to fulfill desires of these parents. In Asian countries, banning sex selection will not change the cultural norms being practiced in these regions (Dyal, 2014).

Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity

There are claims doing rounds that sex selection does not promote the inherent human value, and this is considered as an intuitive reaction, but not a reasonable moral response. The fact that certain human actions are unnatural does not necessary make these actions morally wrong. For example, heart transplant is unnatural but it is meant to save human life (De Melo-Martin, 2013).

The fact that those opposed to the claims that selection of sex should be applicable for medical purposes are not considerate to the fact that medical technologies helps couples with sex-linked genetic disorder to bear a healthy child. This does not translate to misuse of technology to fulfill their personal desires. Furthermore, those in support of sex selection argue that this practice eliminates girls in a humane way as compared to other methods like abortion or neglect, meaning that girls whose birth can be avoided will not be exposed to oppression or discrimination (Tregenza-Parker, 2013).

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In the current health care systems, physicians provide services that do not have direct medical benefits, but add value to individuals who seek for such services like cosmetic surgeries and ultrasound. The same view is applicable when it comes to sex selection. Offering sex selection services is also viewed as misuse of limited medical resources, but offering other services like face-lifts is not considered as s misallocation of limited medical resources. According to WHO Press (2011), the idea of sex selection has been misrepresented in most cases.

The most common argument is that sex selection causes social imbalances of sexes in India and China. The concern whether sex ratio is a threat to the western societies is more of a intuitive reaction devoid of concrete evidence .The idea of calling sex selection a sexist sin is not justifiable because most parents who prefer choosing the sex of their children do so based on the fact that they are motivated by the idea of having children from both sexes. People who believe that raising a boy is different from a girl are those who base their thinking on cultural values of children whereby girls are considered to be different from boys (Cooley &Chesnokova,2011).

Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective

The facts that arguments against sex selection are more about their consequences, these arguments are based on assumptions; hence, it is not easy to prevent some of the consequences from happening. It is not essay to draw legal lines to permit some forms of sex selection while limiting others. The main worry in such a situation is how parents are likely to spend their money on technology to ensure that their children are born with the specifications they want.

This can often lead to misuse of technology. The other concern is that if sex selection is acceptable, it will make one sex preferable than the other. As a result, it will make it hard to promote anti-discriminatory measures in several countries (Lee, 2016).

Conclusion

It not surprising that sex selection is controversial. , Different people justify their reasons for gender selection viewing it as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill societal norms. Others view sex selection as a practice that reinforces discrimination while at the same time it goes against the inherent nature of human value. These two perspectives can describe human dignity from different views.

The case study of sex selection helps us to understand some of the social attitudes, norms and circumstances that can influence our choices and how sex selection from these two perspectives can impact on our understanding of human dignity based on the justification presented in support of this action.

Some of the justifications presented in the essay are likely to influence the perception of individuals in understanding the meaning of human dignity; hence, influencing our actions. In conclusion, it is important to define human dignity from a multi-dimensional perspective as compared to defining it from isolated arguments to accurately establish its meaning.

References

Caulfield, T., & Brownsword, R. (2012). Human dignity: a guide to policy making in the Biotechnology era? Nature Reviews Genetics, 7(1), 72-76.

Chapman, A. R., & Benn, P. A. (2013). Noninvasive prenatal testing for early sex identification: A few benefits and many concerns. Perspectives in biology and medicine, 56(4), 530-547.

Claassens, J. et al (2013). Searching for Dignity: Conversations on human dignity, theology and disability. Toronto. Sun media.

De Melo-Martín, I. (2013). Sex selection and the procreative liberty framework. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 23(1), 1-18.

Dondorp, W., De Wert, G., Pennings, G., Shenfield, F., Devroey, P., Tarlatzis, B., & Diedrich,

K. (2013). ESHRE Task Force on ethics and Law 20: sex selection for non-medical reasons. Human Reproduction, 28(6), 1448-1454.

Cooley, D. & Chesnokova, I. (2011). Sex Selection Abortion in Kazakhstan: Understanding a Cultural Justification, Developing World Bioethics 11, (3). 159–60.

De Melo-Martin, I. (2013). The Ethics of Sex Selection. Ethics and Emerging Technologies, 90.

Dyal, M. (2014). Whether sex-selection for non-medical reasons, using pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, should be permitted in the UK. University of Birmingham.

Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2015). Use of Reproductive technology for sex selection for nonmedical reasons. Fertility and Sterility, 103(6), 1418-1422.

Kalfoglou, A. L. et al (2013). Ethical arguments for and against sperm sorting for non-medical sex selection: a review. Reproductive biomedicine online, 26(3), 231-239.

Lee, M. Y. K. (2016). From the case of sex discrimination to the ideas of equality and equal opportunities. In Ethical Dilemmas in Public Policy (pp. 111-127). Springer Singapore.

Li, Q., & Pantano, J. (2013). The Demographic Consequences of Gender Selection Technology. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 95, (5): 1549–1561.

McGowan, M. L., & Sharp, R. R. (2013). Justice in the context of family balancing. Science, Technology & human values, 38(2), 271-293. Current opinion in psychiatry, 26(5), 474.

Tregenza-Parker, G. (2013). Sex Selection for Family Balancing? A Legal and Ethical Analysis.

Smolin, D. M. (2013). Sex Selection, the Missing Girls of China and India, and the Challenges of Technological Control of Procreation. Regent JL & Pub. Pol’y, 6, 49.

Moskovian, A. (2013). Bans on Sex-Selective Abortions: How Far is Too Far?. Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, 40(2).

Mudde ,A. (2010).‘Before You Formed in the Womb I Knew You’: Sex Selection and Spaces of Ambiguity, Hypatia 25 (3).563–64.

Webb, D. C. (2014). The Sex Selection Debate: A Comparative Study of Sex Selection Laws in the United States and the United Kingdom. South Carolina Journal of International Law and Business, 10(1), 6.

WHO Press (2011). World Health Organization, Preventing Gender-based Sex Selection: An Interagency Statement OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women and WHO. Geneva. WHO Press

Wudarczyk, O. A.et al (2013). Could intranasal oxytocin be used to enhance relationships? Research imperatives, clinical policy, and ethical considerations.

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Leadership Styles, Employee Satisfaction and Productivity

Employee Satisfaction
Employee Satisfaction

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Leadership Styles, Employee Satisfaction and Productivity

Abstract

This study sought to identify the types of leadership styles exhibited by management, the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles. The study will adopted a descriptive survey of non-experimental research design to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity. The study will rely on simple random and purposive sampling techniques in selecting a total of 120 respondents for the study.

The study will also expose that leaders who exhibited democratic (participative), people-oriented or transformational leadership characteristics for that matter, enhanced staff productivity. Leadership is a process influence between leaders and subordinates where a leader attempts to influence the behavior of subordinates to achieve the organizational goals. Organizational success in achieving its goals and objectives depends on the leaders of the organization and their leadership styles. By adopting the appropriate leadership styles, leaders can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.

Background to the study

In recent times, organizations are going through dramatic changes, including flatter and looser structures, downsizing, and horizontal approaches to information flow. On the one hand, these changes are due to rapid technological developments, global competition and changing nature of the workforce. On the other hand, these organizational transformations and innovations are triggered by interventions such as total quality management and business process re- engineering.

Leadership is regarded as a critical factor in the initiation and implementation of the transformations in the organizations. In the past, leaders were identified, selected and installed based on the trait approach. The trait theory argues that leaders have certain personalities, social and physical characteristics, known as traits, which influence whether the person acts as a leader. Proponents of this view assert that qualities such as intelligence, knowledge and expertise, dominance, self-confidence, high energy, tolerance for stress, integrity and maturity were inborn.

The approach thus, rests on the assumption that some people were born to lead due to the presence of these qualities in them while others are not. This approach has witnessed a lot of criticisms from researchers and practitioners as a result of certain inconsistencies associated with it.

Effective leadership and employee job satisfaction are two factors that have been regarded as fundamental for organizational success. A capable leader provides direction for the organization and lead followers towards achieving desired goals. In similar vein, employees with high job satisfaction are likely to exert more effort in their assigned tasks and pursue organizational interests. An organization that fosters high employee job satisfaction is also more capable of retaining and attracting employees with the skills that it needs (Mosadegh Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006).

Several studies have also examined the relationship between the two factors and concurred that leadership has significant impacts on job satisfaction and organisational commitment (William & Hazer, 1986). High job satisfaction enhances employees’ psychological and physical wellbeing (Ilardi, Leone, Kansser, & Ryan, 1983) and positively affects employee performance (Vroom, 1964).

According to Mosadegh Rad and Yarmohammadian (2006), employee job satisfaction refers to the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organization which employs them. In particular, leaders within organizations can adopt appropriate leadership styles to affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.

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Previous studies have examined the relationship between employee job satisfaction and leadership behavior in various settings such as healthcare, military, education and business organizations (Chen & Silversthorne, 2005). Consistent with this, the present study intends to examine the relationship between leadership styles, job satisfaction and in the public sector. Two types of leadership styles will be examined, namely, transactional and transformational leadership.

General Objective

The overall aim of the study is to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity.

Specific objectives:

  1. 1. To determine the relationship between aspects of transactional leadership such as contingent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception with job satisfaction among employees.

Research Questions

  1. What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
  2. What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
  3. What is the type of leadership styles that exists in the chosen organization?
  4. What is the impact of leadership styles on staff productivity?
  5. What is the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction?

Significance of the study

The research will be of great value to firms that need to improve staff productivity and employee satisfaction The research will also be of benefit to the research community in by suggesting areas that scholars can venture into. Thus it will act as a background research for future studies.

Research methodology

This section will provide the process of collecting the, outline the research design and the population and sample of the study. Study parameters such as the study setting, the type of data to be collected, the time of conducting the study and the limitations of the study will discussed as well.

Research Design

This study is quantitative in nature and descriptive research will be used incorporating the case study design in the study. A case study is concerned with investigating a given phenomenon in great detail. The main reason behind using this design is to establish the extent to which the variables under study influence of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles.

The study will adopted descriptive survey for the data collection in order to answer the research questions because the researchers did not control factors that might influence the behavior and performance of subjects under study thereby reporting the outcome as they are (Smith, 1975).This study adopted qualitative method to assess the effects of leadership styles on staff productivity and employee satisfaction.

Target population

The target population will involve the total number of all units from in the organization. This study will be conducted among the various units of the institution where selected heads and other members of staff of were sampled to obtain in-depth data on how leadership style affected staff productivity and employee satisfaction.

Sample Size Determination

The target population will indicate above as 515 and a sample of 120 will be drawn for the study. The research will considered this sample size as a representation of the total population. Nwana (1992) suggests that if the population is a few hundred, a 40% or more sample size will do, if several hundred a 20% or more sample size will be suitable, if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do. Based on this criterion, 23.3% of 515 will equal to 120 and hence the sample size drawn for the study.

Procedure for Data Collection

The research will begin the study with a visit to all the various units and departments and also interacted with a number of staff. With this, the researcher will get to know members of staff well and better understood the institution and its structures. The objectives of the study will be made known to the respondents and also assured them of treating their information with utmost confidentiality. Assurances from a researcher to respondents of confidentiality of information being sought will make the interviewees more relaxed and open in their responses.

Data Presentation and Analysis

Computer data analyses software such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 17) and other relevant software such as Microsoft Excel were the main tools employed to analyze. The justification for the choice of these programs was that, these techniques facilitated word processing and data analysis very easy and accurate.

REFERENCES

Adair, J. (1973) Action-Centred Leadership. New York,: McGraw-Hill.

Archer, F. K., Adentwi, K. I.and Sam, F. K. (2008) Educational Management and School Administration: Ebens Press.

Bass, B.M.and Avolio, B.J. (1994) Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Blake,R.R and mouton, J.S (1964) Managerial Grid. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing.

Bryman, A. (1992).Charisma and leadership in organizations. London: Sage.

Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.

Fieldler, F.E.(1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw Hill.

Foster, R., & Young, J. (2004). Leadership: Current themes from the educational literature. The CAP Journal (12)3, 29-30.

Heifetz, R. and Laurie D. (1997) „The work of leadership‟, Harvard Business Review, Jan.-Feb., pp. 124- 34.

Hersey, P.and Blanchard, K.H. (1988). Management of organizational Behaviour: Utilizing Human Reources, 5th edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.

Hooper, A. and Potter, J. (1997) The Business of Leadership. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company.

House, R. (1976) „A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership‟, in J.Hunt and L. Larson (eds)

Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J.(1989). Transformational versus transactional leadership: How they impact innovation, risk-taking, organization structure and performance. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington, DC.

Kilpatrick, S. And Locke, E. (1991) „Leadership: Do Traits Matter?‟ Academy of Management Executive Vol. 5 , No. 2, pp. 48-60.

Lewin,K., LIippit, R. and White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301.

Müller, R., and Turner, J. R.(2005). Cultural differences in project owner-manager communication. In D. P. Slevin, D.

Yammarino, F.J. and Dubinsky, A.J. (1994). Transformational leadership theory: using levels of analysis to determisne boundary conditions. Personnel Psychology, 47 (4), p. 787.

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Human Dignity in the Biotechnology Era

Human Dignity
Human Dignity

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Human Dignity

Introduction

For decades, sex selection has been a controversial issue. Choosing the sex of a child is often viewed as a justifiable act since there is no harm done to anyone. I believe that gender selection creates balance in a family and it is culturally viewed as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill social norms. However, there are ethicists who believe that sex selection reinforces the idea of sexual discrimination within our societies (Caulfield & Brownsword, 2012).

This explains why there are renewed efforts from civil societies and government to analyze arguments presented by different authors who either support or oppose the idea of sex selection.

This essay analyzes the meaning of human dignity from two different perspectives. Furthermore, the essay examines how human dignity is defined by our expression of choices and as an inherent value of the society. Based on a case study, the essay describes the social attitudes, norms and circumstance that influence such choices, and their impact on our understanding of human dignity. The essay presents justifications of particular actions concerning sex selection and analyzes some of the features of human dignity that can be put at risk due to actions arising from these two perspectives mentioned therein above.

The concept of human dignity

Human dignity is defined based on the belief that dignity is inherent; hence, human beings posses specific capabilities that are not found in other creatures. It is these features that help to distinguish human beings from other creatures. However, choosing a child’s sex does not define the inherent dignity of human beings. Permitting gender selection is considered as discrimination against a specific gender making it less valuable (Chapman &Benn, 2013).

There are various social reasons for sex selection. Some of these reasons include having a family balance, replacing the deceased child, cultural reasons et cetera. However, these reasons do not define human dignity especially in situations where boys are preferred more than girls. (Kalfoglou et al, 2013).

Kalfoglou et al (2013) views sex selection as an idea that reinforces sexual discrimination. As a result, human dignity is viewed as a situation where a certain gender is prevented from existing and the action is perceived to be justifiable because most people have not been victims of this cruelty. Therefore, individuals created by choice have do not have a reason to complain.

In spite of the reasons that seek to justify sex selection, it is considered to undermine human dignity; thus, causing harm to the wider society. Sex selection has often led to gender disparities in many countries especially in Asian countries such as China and India. This trend has led to patriarchal societal agreements perceived to discriminate girls and women (Mudde, 2010).

The social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective

Due to advanced technology, sex selection culture has become popular and this has had a negative impact on females. Parents who are able to access technology have the ability of controlling the sex of their children; hence, they are able to escape the societal stigma of failing to give birth to a son. Many parents avoid giving birth to girls since they are viewed as individuals not worth living .Parents perceive that sex selection gives them the ability to choose what type of children they want in terms of sex. However, this process equates children to products (Webb, 2014).

Sex selection can make parents not to accept some of their shortcomings; hence, lowering the child’s self esteem. Having a strong preference for a specific sex can cause harm for the unwanted sex including rejection and killings to avoid societal blames and eliminate shame. However, proponents of this idea argue that it is normal for such ideas to be rejected at the first instance especially when people are unfamiliar with the idea.

Those opposing the idea of sex selection argue that that having children is not a right that one can put conditions to as children should be viewed as gifts from God (De Melo-Martín, 2013). These arguments are based on our cultural beliefs.

According to Caulfield & Brownsword (2012), traditional patterns of giving gifts recommend that a gift should be taken without putting any condition to it. A gift is something should be accepted unconditionally and the same case applies to children. From a cultural perspective, sex selection promotes the idea of treating children as a commodity, which is more or less similar to buying and selling of children. Choosing some of the features one wants is acceptable only to products like cars or other commodities, but this concept does not apply to human beings. Therefore, sex selection is often used to discriminate a specific gender.

Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity

Proponents of sex selection argue that everyone has the right to live his life as he pleases so as long as the person does not cause harm or infringe upon other peoples’ rights. The harm principle implies that individuals opposing sex selection need to prove that the action is going to cause harm to others.  In this case, sex selection does not cause harm to anybody. Proponents of sex selection argue that the practice is considered harmful based on sociological and psychological assumptions .They further argue that sex selection is an act that is contrary to religious or moral beliefs (Smolin, 2013).

A report by The Task Force on ethics and laws highlights the common objection arguments used to reject the idea of sex selection. The report indicates that sex selection is compared to mocking God. However, such arguments have been applied to all medical innovations. . It started by rejecting the use of chloroform to relieve pain associated with childbirth. This act was viewed as going against God’s will. Such arguments also applied to the use of inoculation (Li & Pantano, 2013).

Ironically, previous medical innovations viewed as going against God’s will have become part of acceptable medical practices; hence, such objections have not been taken seriously. In fact, such arguments are considered as religious claims .Proponents of sex selection argue that individuals should only refrain from the idea if it contravenes their religious beliefs, but laws should not be imposed on people based on other people’s religious views (Dondorp et al, 2013).

Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective

Defining human dignity based on our expression of choices affects public opinion about such ideas. If these perspectives are not comprehensively analyzed through research, public opinion will be flawed. The main concern is that people can use limited philosophical analysis to influence policy discussions .

The definition of human dignity should not be derived from the fact that it is an individual choice, but the practice should be viewed from both public and professional bioethical discussions as recommended by Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproduction (Medicine, 2015).

Human dignity as a societal inherent value

In the second perspective, it is worth noting that the society often values children’s inherent worth. This limits some of the parents’ choices regarding gender selection. Parents who consider gender selections are said not to uphold societal norms and values which is the societal description for human dignity. According to McGowan & Sharp (2013), parents who select their children’s sex because of non-medical reasons are considered to be immoral in the eyes of the society.

From this perspective, human dignity is viewed as pride in oneself or having the sense of self worth as a human being to live a meaningful life .Therefore, any situation that compromises or humiliates this position is considered as a threat to human dignity. Choosing a particular gender over the other for non-medical reasons places expectations on a specific child, and this fails to recognize the personhood of an individual.

Therefore, sex selection fails to adhere to individual inherent characteristics .Children are often viewed as their parent’s property yet they are their own person .Putting too much expectations on the selected children does not give them the respect they deserve; hence, making them not to be autonomous as human beings are supposed to be (Claassens et al., 2013).

Parents who select the sex of their children view their children as a different person instead of the individual the child is suppose to be. Wudarczyk et al (2013) argues that choosing the sex of a child is failing to respect the human intrinsic values of the individual child. In summary, children need to be valued based on their intrinsic worth as human beings. In other words, the values of children should not be attached to specific characteristics.

Social attitudes, norms and circumstances that influence such perspective

In western societies, there is no preferred sex, but selection of sex is based on creating gender balance in the family by having both boys and girls. These common occurrences are observed in Australia, Sweden, and the UK. Even though sex selection does not have negative effects in these countries, Asian countries like China, Korea and India are faced with challenges associated with sex selection due to cultural beliefs. These countries prefer boys to girls and this has led to  more than 10 million abortions within the last 20 years (Moskovian, 2013).

Activists in Asia are calling for the ban of sex selection. However, due to the different reasons parents in the UK and India have for choosing the sex of their children, banning sex selection which is a worldwide practice will not change the situation especially in India. So long as there are religious and economic incentives attached to boys, banning sex selection will not have any effect especially in Asian countries.

Given the fact that majority of UK population would still prefer their first children to be boys, sex selection technology will be misused to fulfill desires of these parents. In Asian countries, banning sex selection will not change the cultural norms being practiced in these regions (Dyal, 2014).

Justification of specific actions in relation to human dignity

There are claims doing rounds that sex selection does not promote the inherent human value, and this is considered as an intuitive reaction, but not a reasonable moral response. The fact that certain human actions are unnatural does not necessary make these actions morally wrong. For example, heart transplant is unnatural but it is meant to save human life (De Melo-Martin, 2013).

The fact that those opposed to the claims that selection of sex should be applicable for medical purposes are not considerate to the fact that medical technologies helps couples with sex-linked genetic disorder to bear a healthy child. This does not translate to misuse of technology to fulfill their personal desires. Furthermore, those in support of sex selection argue that this practice eliminates girls in a humane way as compared to other methods like abortion or neglect, meaning that girls whose birth can be avoided will not be exposed to oppression or discrimination (Tregenza-Parker, 2013).

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In the current health care systems, physicians provide services that do not have direct medical benefits, but add value to individuals who seek for such services like cosmetic surgeries and ultrasound. The same view is applicable when it comes to sex selection. Offering sex selection services is also viewed as misuse of limited medical resources, but offering other services like face-lifts is not considered as s misallocation of limited medical resources. According to WHO Press (2011), the idea of sex selection has been misrepresented in most cases.

The most common argument is that sex selection causes social imbalances of sexes in India and China. The concern whether sex ratio is a threat to the western societies is more of a intuitive reaction devoid of concrete evidence .The idea of calling sex selection a sexist sin is not justifiable because most parents who prefer choosing the sex of their children do so based on the fact that they are motivated by the idea of having children from both sexes. People who believe that raising a boy is different from a girl are those who base their thinking on cultural values of children whereby girls are considered to be different from boys (Cooley &Chesnokova,2011).

Human dignity that can be jeopardized by actions arising from this perspective

The facts that arguments against sex selection are more about their consequences, these arguments are based on assumptions; hence, it is not easy to prevent some of the consequences from happening. It is not essay to draw legal lines to permit some forms of sex selection while limiting others. The main worry in such a situation is how parents are likely to spend their money on technology to ensure that their children are born with the specifications they want.

This can often lead to misuse of technology. The other concern is that if sex selection is acceptable, it will make one sex preferable than the other. As a result, it will make it hard to promote anti-discriminatory measures in several countries (Lee, 2016).

Conclusion

It not surprising that sex selection is controversial. , Different people justify their reasons for gender selection viewing it as a desirable practice that seeks to fulfill societal norms. Others view sex selection as a practice that reinforces discrimination while at the same time it goes against the inherent nature of human value. These two perspectives can describe human dignity from different views.

The case study of sex selection helps us to understand some of the social attitudes, norms and circumstances that can influence our choices and how sex selection from these two perspectives can impact on our understanding of human dignity based on the justification presented in support of this action.

Some of the justifications presented in the essay are likely to influence the perception of individuals in understanding the meaning of human dignity; hence, influencing our actions. In conclusion, it is important to define human dignity from a multi-dimensional perspective as compared to defining it from isolated arguments to accurately establish its meaning.

References

Caulfield, T., & Brownsword, R. (2012). Human dignity: a guide to policy making in the Biotechnology era? Nature Reviews Genetics, 7(1), 72-76.

Chapman, A. R., & Benn, P. A. (2013). Noninvasive prenatal testing for early sex identification: A few benefits and many concerns. Perspectives in biology and medicine, 56(4), 530-547.

Claassens, J. et al (2013). Searching for Dignity: Conversations on human dignity, theology and disability. Toronto. Sun media.

De Melo-Martín, I. (2013). Sex selection and the procreative liberty framework. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 23(1), 1-18.

Dondorp, W., De Wert, G., Pennings, G., Shenfield, F., Devroey, P., Tarlatzis, B., & Diedrich,

K. (2013). ESHRE Task Force on ethics and Law 20: sex selection for non-medical reasons. Human Reproduction, 28(6), 1448-1454.

Cooley, D. & Chesnokova, I. (2011). Sex Selection Abortion in Kazakhstan: Understanding a Cultural Justification, Developing World Bioethics 11, (3). 159–60.

De Melo-Martin, I. (2013). The Ethics of Sex Selection. Ethics and Emerging Technologies, 90.

Dyal, M. (2014). Whether sex-selection for non-medical reasons, using pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, should be permitted in the UK. University of Birmingham.

Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2015). Use of Reproductive technology for sex selection for nonmedical reasons. Fertility and Sterility, 103(6), 1418-1422.

Kalfoglou, A. L. et al (2013). Ethical arguments for and against sperm sorting for non-medical sex selection: a review. Reproductive biomedicine online, 26(3), 231-239.

Lee, M. Y. K. (2016). From the case of sex discrimination to the ideas of equality and equal opportunities. In Ethical Dilemmas in Public Policy (pp. 111-127). Springer Singapore.

Li, Q., & Pantano, J. (2013). The Demographic Consequences of Gender Selection Technology. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 95, (5): 1549–1561.

McGowan, M. L., & Sharp, R. R. (2013). Justice in the context of family balancing. Science, Technology & human values, 38(2), 271-293. Current opinion in psychiatry, 26(5), 474.

Tregenza-Parker, G. (2013). Sex Selection for Family Balancing? A Legal and Ethical Analysis.

Smolin, D. M. (2013). Sex Selection, the Missing Girls of China and India, and the Challenges of Technological Control of Procreation. Regent JL & Pub. Pol’y, 6, 49.

Moskovian, A. (2013). Bans on Sex-Selective Abortions: How Far is Too Far?. Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, 40(2).

Mudde ,A. (2010).‘Before You Formed in the Womb I Knew You’: Sex Selection and Spaces of Ambiguity, Hypatia 25 (3).563–64.

Webb, D. C. (2014). The Sex Selection Debate: A Comparative Study of Sex Selection Laws in the United States and the United Kingdom. South Carolina Journal of International Law and Business, 10(1), 6.

WHO Press (2011). World Health Organization, Preventing Gender-based Sex Selection: An Interagency Statement OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women and WHO. Geneva. WHO Press

Wudarczyk, O. A.et al (2013). Could intranasal oxytocin be used to enhance relationships? Research imperatives, clinical policy, and ethical considerations.

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The Effect of Leadership Styles on Staff Productivity

Staff Productivity
Staff Productivity

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The Effect of Leadership Styles on Staff Productivity

Abstract

This study sought to identify the types of leadership styles exhibited by management, the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, staff productivity and staff perception of leadership styles. The study will adopted a descriptive survey of non-experimental research design to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity. The study will rely on simple random and purposive sampling techniques in selecting a total of 120 respondents for the study.

The study will also expose that leaders who exhibited democratic (participative), people-oriented or transformational leadership characteristics for that matter, enhanced staff productivity. Leadership is a process influence between leaders and subordinates where a leader attempts to influence the behavior of subordinates to achieve the organizational goals. Organizational success in achieving its goals and objectives depends on the leaders of the organization and their leadership styles. By adopting the appropriate leadership styles, leaders can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.

Background to the study

In recent times, organizations are going through dramatic changes, including flatter and looser structures, downsizing, and horizontal approaches to information flow. On the one hand, these changes are due to rapid technological developments, global competition and changing nature of the workforce. On the other hand, these organizational transformations and innovations are triggered by interventions such as total quality management and business process re- engineering.

Leadership is regarded as a critical factor in the initiation and implementation of the transformations in the organizations. In the past, leaders were identified, selected and installed based on the trait approach. The trait theory argues that leaders have certain personalities, social and physical characteristics, known as traits, which influence whether the person acts as a leader. Proponents of this view assert that qualities such as intelligence, knowledge and expertise, dominance, self-confidence, high energy, tolerance for stress, integrity and maturity were inborn.

The approach thus, rests on the assumption that some people were born to lead due to the presence of these qualities in them while others are not. This approach has witnessed a lot of criticisms from researchers and practitioners as a result of certain inconsistencies associated with it.

Effective leadership and employee job satisfaction are two factors that have been regarded as fundamental for organizational success. A capable leader provides direction for the organization and lead followers towards achieving desired goals. In similar vein, employees with high job satisfaction are likely to exert more effort in their assigned tasks and pursue organizational interests. An organization that fosters high employee job satisfaction is also more capable of retaining and attracting employees with the skills that it needs (Mosadegh Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006).

Several studies have also examined the relationship between the two factors and concurred that leadership has significant impacts on job satisfaction and organisational commitment (William & Hazer, 1986). High job satisfaction enhances employees’ psychological and physical wellbeing (Ilardi, Leone, Kansser, & Ryan, 1983) and positively affects employee performance (Vroom, 1964).

According to Mosadegh Rad and Yarmohammadian (2006), employee job satisfaction refers to the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organization which employs them. In particular, leaders within organizations can adopt appropriate leadership styles to affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.

Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here

Previous studies have examined the relationship between employee job satisfaction and leadership behavior in various settings such as healthcare, military, education and business organizations (Chen & Silversthorne, 2005). Consistent with this, the present study intends to examine the relationship between leadership styles, job satisfaction and in the public sector. Two types of leadership styles will be examined, namely, transactional and transformational leadership.

General Objective

The overall aim of the study is to investigate the influence of leadership style on employee satisfaction and productivity.

Specific objectives:

  1. 1. To determine the relationship between aspects of transactional leadership such as contingent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception with job satisfaction among employees.

Research Questions

  1. What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
  2. What is the relationship between aspects of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration and inspirational motivation with job satisfaction among employees?
  3. What is the type of leadership styles that exists in the chosen organization?
  4. What is the impact of leadership styles on staff productivity?
  5. What is the impact of leadership styles on employee satisfaction?

Significance of the study

The research will be of great value to firms that need to improve staff productivity and employee satisfaction The research will also be of benefit to the research community in by suggesting areas that scholars can venture into. Thus it will act as a background research for future studies.

Research methodology

This section will provide the process of collecting the, outline the research design and the population and sample of the study. Study parameters such as the study setting, the type of data to be collected, the time of conducting the study and the limitations of the study will discussed as well.

Research Design

This study is quantitative in nature and descriptive research will be used incorporating the case study design in the study. A case study is concerned with investigating a given phenomenon in great detail. The main reason behind using this design is to establish the extent to which the variables under study influence of leadership styles on employee satisfaction, productivity and staff perception of leadership styles.

The study will adopted descriptive survey for the data collection in order to answer the research questions because the researchers did not control factors that might influence the behavior and performance of subjects under study thereby reporting the outcome as they are (Smith, 1975).This study adopted qualitative method to assess the effects of leadership styles on staff productivity and employee satisfaction.

Target population

The target population will involve the total number of all units from in the organization. This study will be conducted among the various units of the institution where selected heads and other members of staff of were sampled to obtain in-depth data on how leadership style affected staff productivity and employee satisfaction.

Sample Size Determination

The target population will indicate above as 515 and a sample of 120 will be drawn for the study. The research will considered this sample size as a representation of the total population. Nwana (1992) suggests that if the population is a few hundred, a 40% or more sample size will do, if several hundred a 20% or more sample size will be suitable, if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do. Based on this criterion, 23.3% of 515 will equal to 120 and hence the sample size drawn for the study.

Procedure for Data Collection

The research will begin the study with a visit to all the various units and departments and also interacted with a number of staff. With this, the researcher will get to know members of staff well and better understood the institution and its structures. The objectives of the study will be made known to the respondents and also assured them of treating their information with utmost confidentiality. Assurances from a researcher to respondents of confidentiality of information being sought will make the interviewees more relaxed and open in their responses.

Data Presentation and Analysis

Computer data analyses software such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 17) and other relevant software such as Microsoft Excel were the main tools employed to analyze. The justification for the choice of these programs was that, these techniques facilitated word processing and data analysis very easy and accurate.

REFERENCES

Adair, J. (1973) Action-Centred Leadership. New York,: McGraw-Hill.

Archer, F. K., Adentwi, K. I.and Sam, F. K. (2008) Educational Management and School Administration: Ebens Press.

Bass, B.M.and Avolio, B.J. (1994) Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Blake,R.R and mouton, J.S (1964) Managerial Grid. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing.

Bryman, A. (1992).Charisma and leadership in organizations. London: Sage.

Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.

Fieldler, F.E.(1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw Hill.

Foster, R., & Young, J. (2004). Leadership: Current themes from the educational literature. The CAP Journal (12)3, 29-30.

Heifetz, R. and Laurie D. (1997) „The work of leadership‟, Harvard Business Review, Jan.-Feb., pp. 124- 34.

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