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Evaluating Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Quantitative Research Designs
For this Discussion, you will evaluate quantitative research questions and hypotheses in assigned journal article and consider the alignment of theory, problem, purpose, research questions and hypotheses, and design.
You will also identify the type of quantitative research design the authors used and explain how it was implemented.
Discuss a critique of the research study in which you:
• Evaluate the research questions and hypotheses using the Research Questions and Hypotheses Checklist as a guide
• Identify the type of quantitative research design used and explain how the researchers implemented the design
• Analyze alignment among the theory, problem, purpose, research questions and hypotheses, and design
Be sure to support your Main Issue Post and Response Post with reference to the week’s Learning Resources and other scholarly evidence in APA Style.
Reading Resources
Babbie, E. (2017). Basics of social research (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.Chapter 5, “Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement”
Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., & Crawford, L. M. (2016). The scholar-practitioner’s guide to research design. Baltimore, MD: Laureate Publishing.Chapter 4, “Quantitative Research Designs”
Use the following criteria to evaluate an author’s research questions and/or hypotheses. Look for indications of the following:
• Is the research question(s) a logical extension of the purpose of the study?
• Does the research question(s) reflect the best question to address the problem?
• Does the research question(s) align with the design of the study?
• Does the research question(s) align with the method identified for collecting data? If the study is qualitative, does the research question(s) do as follows?
• Relate the central question to the qualitative approach
• Begin with What or How (not Why)
• Focus on a single phenomenon
• Use exploratory verbs
• Use non-directional language
• Use an open-ended format
• Specify the participants and research site If the study is quantitative:
• Do the descriptive questions seek to describe responses to major variables?
• Do the inferential questions seek to compare groups or relate variables?
• Do the inferential questions follow from a theory?
• Are the variables positioned consistently from independent/predictor to dependent/outcome in the inferential questions?
• Is a null and/or alternative hypothesis provided as a predictive statement?
• Is the hypothesis consistent with its respective research question?
• Does the question(s) and/or hypothesis specify the participants and research site? If the study is mixed methods, do the research questions and/or hypotheses do the following?
• Include the characteristics of a good qualitative research question (as listed above)
• Include the characteristics of a good quantitative research and/or hypothesis (as listed above)
• Indicate how the researcher will mix or integrate the two approaches of the study
• Specify the participants and research site
• Convey the overall intent of the study that calls for a mixed methods approach
Below is a partial answer to the above homework questions by one of our writers. If you are interested in a custom non plagiarized top quality answer, click order now to place your order.
Evaluating Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Quantitative Research Designs
Canfield, Kivisalu, Van Der Karr, King, and Phillips (2015), present a discussion on the validity of the use of course grading as an effective method of assessing the learning outcomes of students. The research questions used in the study are in line with the purpose of the study. The descriptive questions used in the article seek to describe the responses to the main variables through the assessment of discriminant and convergent validity.
The inferential questions seek to both compare groups and relate inter-group and intra-group variables. These inferential questions follow the multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) of assessment. The research questions used in the study also align with the chosen technique of analysis of the collected data (Babbie, 2017, pp. 426 – 438). In this case, the choice of the multitrait-multimethod aligns with the research questions.
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Data set
Quantitative Section
Introduction to Data set
Data sets represent collected data from a single database or data matrix. Every column present in data sets represents a particular variable while every row represents a certain member of the data set in question. All values present in data sets are recorded as variables. Each value is referred to as datum. Data sets contain more than one form of data. The term data set was coined to mean a method of data collection from tables which are related and correspond to certain events or experiments (Bryman, 2012). Data sets have been utilised to identify and analyse both qualitative and quantitative data.
Data Management Analysis Technique
Quantitative data analysis bases on different statistical methods. The commonly used methods are measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion. Measures of central tendency include the mean, mode and median. Mean represents an average value while median refers to the centre value (Bryman, 2006). Mode refers to the value with the highest frequency.
The mean is the commonly used method that is used to analyse results since it monitors and determines the exact value that can be used to measure different variables. It can be used to compare different values. Measures of dispersion include variance and standard deviation and inter-quartile ranges (Mugenda, 2009). Measures of dispersion and central tendency are used together to analyse data. Standard deviation and variance are two forms used together with the mean. Variance and standard deviation show how much values differ from the mean.
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Presentation of Data
In this case an example of the disease affecting different parts of the world will be utilised. The data will be based on several continents. All the information that has been provided has been divided into data sets. The sets include the Africa region, western pacific region, South East Asia, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, and the American region. The data provided included the different diseases that affected different areas in different years. The quantitative method that was used to analyse the data was the mean. It encompassed calculating all the different death values per disease. The following results were obtained
Mean value
Region
134.39
Western pacific region
132.23
South east Asia
194.65
Europe
117.50
Eastern mediterrean
117.92
Region of Americas
208.13
Africa
Table 1. Mean values showing the deaths of different diseases per 100,000 people per population
Description and Interpretation of Data
The above data compares different rates of morbidities across different continents. The average value when all values are incorporated equal 150.22. When this value is compared to mean values, the deviation and variances becomes easily established. The results reveal that Africa has the highest rates of mortality followed closely by Europe (Malterud, 2011). Eastern Mediterranean has the lowest value. All results reveal that the values lie within the accepted deviation standards.
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References to Research Methods
Mean values have been used to compare results from different samples. The mean as is used as a comparison method since it eliminates all outliers present in a set of data. Median and mode are two methods not utilised since they include outliers in their analysis. Additionally, the median shows the number that is in the middle while the mode shows the number appearing in most cases (Creswell & Clark, 2007). Such values cannot be utilised to compare different samples since they show bias in their analysis. Inclusion of standard deviation and variance in the mean provide a better method of analysis.
Relevance of Data to Policy
The above information can be utilised to implement new laws and heath standards that can be utilised to decrease morbidities rates. The above information provides a comparison of different health standards across the world. It can be used by non-governmental organisations health standards across the world (Neuman, 2005). The above information can be used to investigate the underlying the causes of high levels witnessed in some parts of the world.
Policy makers will be keen to address the underlying causes of the diseases. Policy makers may also opt to utilise information provided by the results to address the high levels witnessed in some areas. More specifically, it can utilise some of the policies implemented in areas that have shown low incidences. Policy makers are able to understand the number of people that affected.
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Qualitative Section
Introduction to Qualitative Data Sets
The qualitative section involves analysis of data sets that are not expressed numerically. These data sets will also be expressed in rows and columns. Data sets included in qualitative data sets will not be limited to descriptive and inferential statistics (Creswell, 2013). In this case values that are utilised to analyse the data are in nominal form or ordinal scales. This means that the data to be utilised will not base on number but in certain wordings which either shows the level or degree of sickness in this case or the number of people suffering from a given disease.
Data Management Analysis Techniques.
Two methods have commonly been used to analyse qualitative data. These methods are coding and theming processes (Mays & Pope, 2006). Coding refers to the arrangement of data by combing different aspects such as themes, categories and ideas. Coding as a method has been utilised to bring out certain themes that are dominate in qualitative data (Patton, 2005).
The theming process involves the identification of particular theme that is largely shown in qualitative analysis. It identifies the major themes that are easily brought out in different aspects. It normally focuses on outlining all major themes present in any form of qualitative study.
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Presentation of Data
The information provided below seeks to address the question on the most prevalent disease that affected individuals in the year 2000. The data was selected using the theming process where the disease status of the world was going to be compared. The disease states that are available are the 2000 and 2012. Therefore, one had to be chosen and investigated.
Thus in this case the disease that was investigated was the one shown in 2000. All relevant information containing the different disease that occurred in the year 2000 as well as their levels were analysed. Their means were then identified and formulated into a pie chart to show the levels.
Description and Interpretation of Data
From the above results it can be deduced that all causes of disease were the major contribution to the diseases rates witnessed . it was closely follwoed with cardiovascualr disease, mailgnant diseases, neoplam conditions, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis. A pie chart is used to bring out this form of information because it represent one of the best methods that brings out qualititive data. A comparison can thus be carried to identify the disease thataffacted more people in the year 2000. From this information different piechrts can be made depending on the individual gender of individuals.
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References to Research Methods
Pie charts have been used in numerous occassions to bring out a qualititive method of analysis. Unlike other methods, a pie chart can be readily used to identify the disease that affected more people. it can also be further utilised to ideintify other small areas withi basing on other vraibales such as sex and region. From the above pie chart small pieces of infromation regarding the other variables can be easily collcted and utilised.
Qulitative data involves the idenfication of which disease was shon to affect more populations across the world. from the above values, one ca easily identify the differen values belonging to different data sets. For example , one can make a conclusion that cardiovascular diseases make up the huge percentage of diseases affecting people across the world as compoared to any other form of disease. This statement can be made in regard of the disease in the year 2000.
Relevance of Data to Policy
The above information becomes quite important to all policy makers. The identificatoon of the disease that casing more diseases across the world becomes a major concern for all policy makers. Once the disease has been identified, all necesaary measures required to decrease the disease are taken into consideration (Patton, 2005).Some of this measures include health promotion exercises, public awareness on the causes and prevention of some of this diseases.
Policy makers can also come up with laws aimed at decreasing the incidences of all the above diseases. Polyc makers can also manage their budgets so that more cash is allocated n fighting such diseases in the society (Smith, 2013). The piechart provides policy makers with an opportunity to identify disease that require immediate attention. At the same time it tells the polcy makers of the disease status of their society.
The information that has been provided an be used to as a standard measurement against the disease status of different individuals in the society. this is because the values represent the pricture of the world. It can also be used to compare results with the coming years for example the year 2012. Lastly, the pie chart can be dissected to adress all concerns of all parties in the society. It can be dissected basing on regions and gender.
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Abstract
This report therefore seeks to examine the role of the civil society in ensuring a qualitative EITI report. This can be seen in the manner in which revenues generated from the minerals and oil is in this case utilized in the transformation of different economies with the aim of reducing poverty and raising the standards of living for different population in resource-rich nations.
The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring a Qualitative EITI Report
Introduction
The purpose of this report is to establish the involvement of the civil society in determining an EITI qualitative reporting. The paper will critically establish the functions of the civil society the process of EITI qualitative reporting. It is vital to consider that states that incorporate the element of EITI make a commitment to strengthen the aspect of transparency in the revenues generated from its natural resource revenues. The citizens of these states are also accorded the responsibility of holding the state and the government accountable on how these resources are dispensed (Disclosure as Governance 2010). This aids in the building of prosperous and stable societies that function in an effective manner in the global economy.
On the other hand, much of ETI’s development is owed to the civil society. This clearly depicts the fact that without the existence of the civil society, ETI would not be functional. This is attributed to the fact that the civil society makes concerted advocacy approaches that sees the extractive companies publish their payments to the host governments. Consequently, close to 400 civil society organizations have been committed to the participation of governance through the implementation of ETI in resource rich states around the globe (Sovacool, & Andrews, 2015).
ETI in this case incorporates and approach of governance that advances the element of revenue transparency within the mining, gas, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies (Topal, & Toledano, 2013). Thus the key elements of the success of this approach lies in the ability of developing dialogue that fosters the collaboration between different players in the development, monitoring and evaluation of EITI process. The engagement and functions of the civil society occurs in its approach aimed at overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Lehrer, & Delaunay, 2009).
EITI Background
In 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard. As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.
In this case, the process of EITI has been promoted in international development agendas as an instrument that will finitely establish and develop the resource-rich countries to reap the benefits of their resource endowments, a factor that has exhibited excessive expectations about the impact it could have. The G8 has critically emphasised its support for the EITI process, by initiating effective approaches aimed at improving its transparency, accountability, and good governance and thereby leading to sustainable economic growth in the extractive sector.
The EITI Principles
According to Aaronson (2011), the EITI principles were first initiated in conferences that were held in London in 2003. During these conferences, several states, investors and civil society organizations reaches a consensus on the principles that were required in order to establish transparency over the payments of revenues in the extractive sector (Murphy, 2012).
The EITI aspect holds on the belief that prudence should be a key aspect in the use of natural resources for the development of a sustainable economy and development that would in turn impact poverty reduction approaches (Aaronson, 2011). If the proponents of EITI are not fairly management, this would result in a negative economic and social impact.
EITI on the other hand acknowledge the initiatives directed towards managing wealth that is gained from natural resources with the aim of benefiting the citizens of a state within the domains of sovereign governments, a factor that needs to be initiated within the interests of a national state (Sovacool & Andrews, 2015). EITI also takes into consideration the benefit accrued from the extraction of mineral resources, occurring over a revenue stream for a period of time, a factor that depicts the high dependency on the prices (Aaronson, 2011).
Benefits for Local Communities and Civil Society Organisations
The local community is considered to be the single most beneficiary of the benefits that arise from the increases in revenues. This can be viewed in the efforts that have been developed to ensure resource accountability through good governance, and justice, with the aim of mitigating the element of corruption are promoted and reinforced (Aaronson, 2011). The civil society organizations are also considered as part of the beneficiaries of these efforts as seen in the improved relations developed to influence governments and companies in the process. This can be viewed in their efforts directed towards:
Increasing the opportunities aimed at building and strengthening different networks with the international organizations and investors.
Strengthening public institutions.
Enhancing governance and citizens who are aware of the empowerment.
The climate of transparency is one that ensures the civil society groups are empowered. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies. The local community is aimed at profiting from the increases in revenues. The element of justice, accountability, good governance are promoted and reinforced with the aim of mitigating corrupt practices during the process (Aaronson, 2011).
The Role of Civil Society in EITI Reporting
As argued, the solid involvement and participation of the civil society is considered as essential since it has the capacity to better implement and a reinforce the initiation of a high quality EITI reporting approach. Participation of the civil society needs to be observed in the delivery of EITI results that go beyond the principles of dialogue and the dissemination of reports (PR, 2013). Engagement of the civil society’s in ensuring a qualitative EITI report occurs at different levels that include: the international EITI Boards and the states that implement the EITI process as part of the multi-stakeholder groups that have the capacity to oversee the EITI (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).
The civil society as attributed in the process has the powers and initiative to discuss and establish the genuineness of the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders. In some states, the civil society groups are considered to be in the forefront in popularizing EITI. In other regions, the civil society works in supporting legislative processes that are directed towards the strengthening and advancing of the states the agendas on resource and revenue transparency (Holden, & Jacobson, 2007).
This clearly depicts that the role of the civil society has the capacity to monitor and engage in the implementation of national dialogue in addressing some of the issues that are not covered directly by EITI such as the use of revenues that are accrued from the extractive sector.
Experiences that emerge from the implementation of EITI clearly shows that the civil society groups are bound to face several challenges within a state’s level that include the lack of capacity constraints, the lack of resources and other security issues (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). EITI Board has a functionally developed range of policy responses that are determined in the strengthening of the EITI requirements aimed at ensuring the civil society groups are fully interdependent and are provided with the opportunity to get engaged within the stages of EITI process.
Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy (Pal, & Pantaleo, 2008). The goal of this is to ensure these issues are addressed and effectively implemented in order to serve the common interest and good of the society
The non-governmental organizations through their involvement and activities, strong beliefs and principled positions voice out their views and positions to the sectors of the society through an approach that promotes discussions, debates, and constructive engagements. These roles are developed to enrich the public’s participation in the decision-making process thus strengthening good governance, accountability and democratic principles (Frynas, 2010).
These reasons therefore determine the manner in which the concepts of EITI are developed and built through an approach that engages a multi-stakeholder approach. This approach involves several key players such as the government, the civil society and other companies who play different roles in the EITI process. The civil society plays an integral role in reforming the EITI process even in situations where these roles are unclear in several implementing countries. The roles of the civil society would also include:
Identification
The civil society organizations beside the aspect of dialogue also share the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Some of the issues that the civil society organizations clearly focus on include the process of leasing, oil block allocations, bidding rounds, the issuance of mining licenses, physical, financial and process management, the environmental standards and so on.
Agenda Setting
The civil society is different states consider the aspect of agenda setting as their traditional responsibility and a primary tool of their engagement (Calland, & Bentley, 2013). Under these roles, the civil society organizations identify some of the issues that are related to the EITI mandate and use these issues to set national and international agendas for the publics discourse, debate and engagement with the governments and the extractive revenue companies with the aim of improving the aspect of governance through a transparent process and accountability that is done through the use of EITI frameworks.
Public Education and Enlightenment
The element of public education and enlightenment in this case is another role of the civil society even though individuals tend to think these needs to be left for the media alone (Shenton, & Hay-Gibson, 2009).
Agents of Social Mobilization and Change
The civil society organizations also makes use of the fact that for the process of EITI to secure the public’s interests required within the sector, there is a need of providing a supporting role-that of acting as the agents of social mobilization and change (Mejía Acosta, 2013). In this case, it is essential to consider that these roles include the sustained mobilization of the opinions of the public with the aim of advancing the course of the EITI process within the areas of legislative processes and policy formulations. These are known and have been considered to come in the form of peaceful protests, resource mechanization and petitions.
Monitoring and Oversight
It is additionally essential to consider that the civil society organizations are also tasked with the responsibility of monitoring the processes and programs of EITI including the policies and the unfolding events within the extractive sector and ensure that accurate reports and facts are provided with the view of directing the appropriate course of action that can improve the process of governance (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The monitoring and oversight in this case needs to be community based and people driven, In order to carry out these functions in an effective manner (Caspary, 2012).
Advisory
Advisory in this case gives the position of the civil society organizations as some of the professionals within this field that offer fair, profound, qualitative and constructive advice to the EITI processes and in the implementation of an effective EITI process (Mejía Acosta, 2014). The EITI Board in this case needs to be open to advices within the areas of their operations and publicly acknowledge the contribution of the civil society within the EITI process.
Whistle Blowing
The civil society remains in a better position to blow the whistle in the event that extractive revenue transparency functions of the EITI process are not clearly following their mandates. This would therefore see the civil society active is in the exposition of fraudulent practices, process lapses, bribery, corruption, and dishonest dealings with individuals at any stage within the EITI process (Magner, 2015). The functions of whistle blowing as conducted by the civil society may also be used to attract and draw the attention of the areas that have achieved poor performance and that have been neglected and the failures in the rise of statutory responsibilities (Mejía Acosta, 2014).
Observation
The civil society has the mandate of taking up the roles of being the observers within certain activities in the EITI process in consultation with the Board and the secretariat. These roles also include the formulation of procurement processes for some of the projects, budget preparations, the development of annual work-plans, and meetings held with the public in situations that are advisable (Eigen, 2013). In performing these roles, civil society organizations are considered to have the right to engage in independent reporting of these events and give EITI Board the opportunity to make their final comments on these reports before they are disseminated.
Feedback
The role of the civil society in providing feedback in this case is considered as essential and desirable within the processes of EITI (Mouan, 2010). Many of the civil society organizations in this case draw from professional groupings, coalitions, and clusters and take up the full charge and role of providing adequate feedback to their states through a process that extends to the larger publics interests with the aim of addressing the issues of interests.
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Examples of Restricted Civil Society Group Cases
It is essential to establish that there are a number of examples that depict the restrictions of the civil society in the process of EITI. In one of the illustrations, the government of Congo can be viewed in the detention and trial of two Publishers Brice Mackosso and Christian Mounzeo who tried to publish the state of the nation as opposed to the governments view.
In other countries such as Equatorial Guinea that believe in the authoritarian style of leadership, the situation is conceived to be worse. In Guinea, the President then-Teodoro Obiang Nguema and his government have overtime been criticised by NGOs and other civil society organizations for placing restrictions on the basic civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression.
This therefore determines the fact that the space civil society involvement through activism on issues corruption and transparency remains non-existent as viewed in this states (PWYP, 2006). However, it is essential to determine that a government only has the capacity and power to restrict supporters who contend for transparency in a more discreet way.
For instance, this can be seen in the case of Nigeria where Nuhu Ribadu, who was considered as the head of t Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) then was forced to resign and requested to attend a one year course in policy studies in consideration of the fact that the EFCC had come too close to top policy layers and had arrested several governors for corrupt practices (The Economist, 5 January 2008).
Civil Society is not Strong and Independent enough to take on the Responsibility that EITI Implies
In as much as the formal structure of the EITI process suggestively gives that governments responsibility for the implementation of the EITI process, much responsibility is put on civil society. Civil society in this case is given the power and autonomy to pressure the governments to join their initiatives. Civil society has the power to scrutinise and request for clear information of the figures presented in the EITI reports (in spite of the fact that most reports reveal very limited information), and to determine the manner in which the finances are utilized by the organisations extractive sector works, the payment types utilized, the relevant government receiving the payments and the accountability of these payments.
The list of the expectations from the civil society organizations remain long and for the countries in need of the EITI. In considering that the extractive sectors are, legally, technically and financially complex makes this approach difficult to achieve. In general, the EITI process requires an environment of justice and accountability in order to be implemented.
This therefore requires an environment where the civil society is empowered in knowledge and is considered as independent with the leaders within these organizations elected through a transparent approach that inclusively engages the democratic powers of the system. There is a need of ensuring that there are no conflict of interest that arises between the government, citizens, and the extractive industries.
The voices of the civil society organisations as viewed in this process can be alleged to affirm these organizations limitations within the EITI framework. Aaronson (2008) notes in several countries, the multi-stakeholder approach are an essential element that inhibits these organizations in the departure from the prevailing institutional and political norms. As a result of this, the civil society is incapacitated to effectively participate in the EITI process. In some states, the nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) are considered as autonomous since government officials are given the tasks of appointing the stakeholder groups rather than giving the citizens and NGOs opportunities to choose their representatives.
Discussion of Results
It is arguable that the civil society besides engaging in dialogue within the EITI process is also engaged in several other processes. An instance of this can be viewed in the implementation of EITI that facilitates the public participation in governance and improves the access to information for civil societies (Mouan, 2010). The local community in this case benefits from the increases in collected revenues that are channeled in projects, while of justice, accountability, and good governance on the part of the civil society are promoted and reinforced. The engagement of the civil society occurs in overseeing the implementation of EITI in countries and within the international EITI board (Walden, Jerome, & Miller, 2007).
Recommendation
Beside the aspect of dialogue, the civil society also shares the view that it is their responsibility to identify the key issues that are within the interest of the public and that relate to the mandate of the EITI process that are directed towards extractive revenue transparency, the process of governance and ensure that the identified issues are addressed and brought within the public domain for debate and dialogue (Frynas, 2010).
Within the context of governance and development, the civil society is considered as a third sector that is distinct from the business and government that are functioning as an intermediary institution in ensuring that the issues that deal with the interests of the public within the public domain are coordinated through advocacy.
Conclusion
In this reports, it is established that in 2002, at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, United Kingdom’s Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the EITI process as the future global transparency standard. As a coalition of different stakeholders came together, expectations were heightened towards believing that through governance and accountability, nations, companies and other players in the economy would improve their share of revenues being spent on economic growth and poverty reduction.
As determined in this report, the EITI in this case provides a governance approach that advances revenue transparency within the gas, mining, and oil sector through an approach that stresses the need of multi-stakeholder approach with integrated roles of the civil society, the governments and extractive companies.
The solid involvement and participation of the civil society leads the way in the implementation and a reinforcement of high quality EITI reports. This can be achieved when the civil society in this case has the capacity to discuss the aspects of revenue transparency and increasingly contribute their experiences and expertise in fostering dialogues with different stakeholders.
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External Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
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External Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
Introduction
The results of a research study are significant in the event that they can be considered as accurate and confidently in their interpretation. The element of accuracy and confidence in the interpretation of a research study’s result is subsequently dependent on the validity of the study. Validity in this case infers to the degree in which a research study’s inferences can be articulated from the results of the study. In consideration of this, there are two primary aspects of validity that include the internal and the external validity.
Internal Validity
This can be established as the extent in which the results of a research study are considered as a function of the variables that are manipulated in a systematic way, measured and observed during a study. An example of this can be seen in a researcher determined to establish which of the two instructional approaches are superior in teaching a mathematical concept within a classroom setting (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015).
The researcher would be intrigued to encourage two tutors to use each of the instructional methods and then take a comparison of the mean test scores of each and every class following the use of the instructional method. The validity of this study can be depicted in the tutors efficiency and enthusiasm in using the instructional method, the interest of the class and their preparation. In this case, it is essential to establish that some of the potential threats of internal validity include:
History:
History can be considered as the occurrence of events that are prone to alter the end result or outcome of a research study. In this case, before conducting a research study, it is essential to determine that a previous history is likely to have taken place (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For instance, a study on the effectiveness of a new concept used in teaching a unit on the biology of a nervous system may be overtaken by history since many students may have watched a documentary on this on the television.
Maturation:
The aspect of maturation depicts the changes that are likely to occur on the subjects of a study during the research period. These changes are considered as not part of a study since they are likely to affect studies results (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For example, in a biological growth process, a researcher may be forced to consider the element of weight gain or the increase in an individual’s height that results from lunch or breakfast programs as a change that may occur during a study.
Mitigating the Potential Threats of Internal Validity
In addressing the element of history in internal validity, a research may consider using a control group that is selected within the same population within an experimental group (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This group therefore needs to experience the same history as the experimental group, an aspect that would eliminate the effects of history. On the other hand, the duration of an experiment may be shortened in reducing such effects. On the other hand, the effects of maturation can be compared to those of maturation and can be mitigated through the selection of the same population from as that of an experimental group and the study period may be shortened as well.
External Validity
This refers to the extent in which a studies result can be generalized in a confident way to a larger group that engaged in the study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). In this case, a researcher needs to determine the reasons behind the use of variables that are similar to the aspects that exist within the larger population. Some of the potential threats of an external validity include:
The Selection-treatment Interaction:
This is primarily considered as the possibility of the selected participants characteristics interactions with some elements of the treatment (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may therefore include the participants learning, prior experiences, personality or any other elements that may interact with the effects of the study.
Effects of an Experimentation Arrangement
This primarily infers to the situations in which the participants of a study become aware of their involvement in a study and as a result of this, their performance and response changes from what would have been.
The possible approaches of mitigating threats to external validity include the inclusion of an efficient design by adding treatment or control groups and differential waves of measurement (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). On the other hand, a researcher may also consider the use of statistical analysis
Ethical Issue in Quantitative Research
Ethics can be perceived as the development of a good study conduct with the aim of making moral judgments on the element of good conduct. In quantitative research, one of the ethical issues that need to be given consideration is the acquisition of the participants consent in a study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may influence the design decision of a study since the researchers may have to include efficient methods aimed at attaining the consents of participants in a research study.
Amenability of a Research to Scientific Study Using a Quantitative Approach
In considering this, it is vital to establish that this element enables a researcher to scientifically establish the primary causes of his/her observations with the aim of in providing unambiguous answers to the research studies intent. This element remains essential since without it, the cause of an effect may not be established and isolated.
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Main Issue Post
As established, the primary issues established in this post can be seen in the construction of a social variable that determines the limitations of racial identity with the biological differences that exist among races (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). It is essential to consider that an individual’s experience on different faces may be viewed as systematically different within particular societies based on how these societies take cognizance of the element of racial differences.
An instance of this can be viewed in the manner in which multiple races are socially contracted among the whites in U.S. Numerous immigrant groups that are now classified as Whites that include the Eastern Europeans and the Irish populations were first considered as racially different from other groups that include the North European and Western regions. In this case, racial identities may be viewed as changing as a result of the assimilation of demographic groups that differentiate themselves from other groups as a result of political, economic and social variables.
Response Post
As a researcher, it is credible to take cognizance of the possibilities that result in the social construction and the manner in which such constructions affect the meaning of a studies variable. This is ion consideration of the fact that variables are constructed to have immense influence on studies validity (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This therefore requires a clear and concise definition of each and every variable in a study with the aim of increasing the validity of the study. On the other hand, it is vital to establish the context in which research data is collected and interpreted.
Conclusion
As determined in this study, the element of internal and external validity plays a significant role in a study since they determine the confidentiality and accuracy of a research design.
Internal Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
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Internal Validity: Designing Quantitative Research
Introduction
The results of a research study are significant in the event that they can be considered as accurate and confidently in their interpretation. The element of accuracy and confidence in the interpretation of a research study’s result is subsequently dependent on the validity of the study. Validity in this case infers to the degree in which a research study’s inferences can be articulated from the results of the study. In consideration of this, there are two primary aspects of validity that include the internal and the external validity.
Internal Validity
This can be established as the extent in which the results of a research study are considered as a function of the variables that are manipulated in a systematic way, measured and observed during a study. An example of this can be seen in a researcher determined to establish which of the two instructional approaches are superior in teaching a mathematical concept within a classroom setting (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015).
The researcher would be intrigued to encourage two tutors to use each of the instructional methods and then take a comparison of the mean test scores of each and every class following the use of the instructional method. The validity of this study can be depicted in the tutors efficiency and enthusiasm in using the instructional method, the interest of the class and their preparation. In this case, it is essential to establish that some of the potential threats of internal validity include:
History:
History can be considered as the occurrence of events that are prone to alter the end result or outcome of a research study. In this case, before conducting a research study, it is essential to determine that a previous history is likely to have taken place (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For instance, a study on the effectiveness of a new concept used in teaching a unit on the biology of a nervous system may be overtaken by history since many students may have watched a documentary on this on the television.
Maturation:
The aspect of maturation depicts the changes that are likely to occur on the subjects of a study during the research period. These changes are considered as not part of a study since they are likely to affect studies results (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). For example, in a biological growth process, a researcher may be forced to consider the element of weight gain or the increase in an individual’s height that results from lunch or breakfast programs as a change that may occur during a study.
Mitigating the Potential Threats of Internal Validity
In addressing the element of history in internal validity, a research may consider using a control group that is selected within the same population within an experimental group (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This group therefore needs to experience the same history as the experimental group, an aspect that would eliminate the effects of history. On the other hand, the duration of an experiment may be shortened in reducing such effects. On the other hand, the effects of maturation can be compared to those of maturation and can be mitigated through the selection of the same population from as that of an experimental group and the study period may be shortened as well.
External Validity
This refers to the extent in which a studies result can be generalized in a confident way to a larger group that engaged in the study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). In this case, a researcher needs to determine the reasons behind the use of variables that are similar to the aspects that exist within the larger population. Some of the potential threats of an external validity include:
The Selection-treatment Interaction:
This is primarily considered as the possibility of the selected participants characteristics interactions with some elements of the treatment (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may therefore include the participants learning, prior experiences, personality or any other elements that may interact with the effects of the study.
Effects of an Experimentation Arrangement
This primarily infers to the situations in which the participants of a study become aware of their involvement in a study and as a result of this, their performance and response changes from what would have been.
The possible approaches of mitigating threats to external validity include the inclusion of an efficient design by adding treatment or control groups and differential waves of measurement (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). On the other hand, a researcher may also consider the use of statistical analysis
Ethical Issue in Quantitative Research
Ethics can be perceived as the development of a good study conduct with the aim of making moral judgments on the element of good conduct. In quantitative research, one of the ethical issues that need to be given consideration is the acquisition of the participants consent in a study (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This may influence the design decision of a study since the researchers may have to include efficient methods aimed at attaining the consents of participants in a research study.
Amenability of a Research to Scientific Study Using a Quantitative Approach
In considering this, it is vital to establish that this element enables a researcher to scientifically establish the primary causes of his/her observations with the aim of in providing unambiguous answers to the research studies intent. This element remains essential since without it, the cause of an effect may not be established and isolated.
Want help to write your Essay or Assignments? Click here
Main Issue Post
As established, the primary issues established in this post can be seen in the construction of a social variable that determines the limitations of racial identity with the biological differences that exist among races (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). It is essential to consider that an individual’s experience on different faces may be viewed as systematically different within particular societies based on how these societies take cognizance of the element of racial differences.
An instance of this can be viewed in the manner in which multiple races are socially contracted among the whites in U.S. Numerous immigrant groups that are now classified as Whites that include the Eastern Europeans and the Irish populations were first considered as racially different from other groups that include the North European and Western regions. In this case, racial identities may be viewed as changing as a result of the assimilation of demographic groups that differentiate themselves from other groups as a result of political, economic and social variables.
Response Post
As a researcher, it is credible to take cognizance of the possibilities that result in the social construction and the manner in which such constructions affect the meaning of a studies variable. This is ion consideration of the fact that variables are constructed to have immense influence on studies validity (Haegele, & Hodge, 2015). This therefore requires a clear and concise definition of each and every variable in a study with the aim of increasing the validity of the study. On the other hand, it is vital to establish the context in which research data is collected and interpreted.
Conclusion
As determined in this study, the element of internal and external validity plays a significant role in a study since they determine the confidentiality and accuracy of a research design.
To deliver quality care for patients, it is essential for nurses to apply the best current practice. However, the old adage “all that glitter is not gold” is also applicable in research. This is because not all nursing research is of high standard, which implies that nurses should not just take research based on the fact that it is being published. Critiquing of quantitative study follows a systematic approach to appraise the strengths and weakness of the piece of research, with the aim of determining their applicability or credibility to practice.
In this context, this paper will critically analyze this study: – Dobson, R., Whittaker, R., Jiang, Y., Shepherd, M., Maddison, R., Carter, K., Cutfield, R., McNamara, C., Khanolkar, M., and Murphy, R. (2016). Text message-based diabetes self management support (SMS4BG): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 17: 179. doi: 10.1186/s13063-016-1305-5
Background of study
The title is the first thing observed in this article. An appropriate title should be about 10-15 word long. Too short or long title can be confusing as well as misleading. In this context, the title clearly identifies the purpose of study, which is randomized controlled study on the impact of text message based diabetes support program.
The study’s abstract provides a succinct overview of the study research, including the aim of the study, sample size, study method, findings and conclusion. Reading the abstract, one is able to determine the relevance of the study to the researchers interest, and to whether continue or not continue reading the article (Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt, 2015).
The research problem is well presented in the back ground if the study. The statement in this section broadly informs a reader about the purpose of the study. For instance, the study highlights that the prevalence of diabetes is increasing internationally, and the burden of this disease is reported among the minority groups, especially those from low income household.
The quantitative research critique reports that effective self management strategies should include frequent monitoring of diabetic patient, empowering the patient with healthy behaviors, and appropriate dosages insulin administration in order to enhance improvement in glyceamic control. In this section, the significance of the issue in nursing is also explored.
The study proposes that use of text message services to deliver health services and vital information is effective in supporting healthy behaviors and appropriate disease management. The increasing ownership of mobile phones makes it possible to reach populations that would otherwise be difficult to reach (Hinshaw & Basu, 2015).
The research question is thorough and is well elaborated using substantial yet relevant details as well as the explanation process. The study aims, research question and hypothesis helps the researcher to form a link between stated purpose and research problem. In this study, these concepts are clearly.
The aim of this quantitative research critique is to evaluate the effectiveness of mobile health diabetes in supporting program (SMS4BG) in patients diagnosed with diabetes type1 and type 2. The specific objectives includes a) enhancing self management processes to improve glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and b) to assess its ability to improve diabetes management in remote populations (Dobson et al., 2016).
Methods of study
Methodology can be compared to nuts and bolts of a research study. The study followed the Standards Protocol Items Recommendation for Interventional Trials (SPIRIT) 2013. The study intervention was done based to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT)-EHEALTH checklist. The research method used in this study is quantitative research method.
There are various research method including experimental, non- experiment and quasi experimental design. In context, the study applied randomized controlled design to determine cause and affect relationship of the study variables. This type of research design is appropriate because it reduces potential sources of bias. This research method is easier to blind mask the participants because the treatment are identified clearly (Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt, 2015).
The sample size used was 1000 participants (500 per arm). The stratification was done per health district with the urban and remote areas. This sample size was adequate and provided 90% power and 5% significance level to detect changes in 0.5% HbA1c within baseline of 9 months. Randomization and blinding was done in a ratio of 1:1. The stratification was done according to health district categories i.e. high urban or remote and status of diabetes.
To enhance vigor, the randomization process was done using computer program based on block sizes of 2 or 4. The nature of intervention made it difficult to conceal treatment allocation to participants and the research staff. To improve study outcome validity, the primary patient outcome such as HbA1c, hospital emergency visits and admissions were the objective assessors of the intervention (Dobson et al., 2016).
The next element is method of data collection. There are many strategies that can be adopted when collecting data in quantitative research including interviews, observational tools and attitude scales. This study used tailor made questionnaires that consisted of closed questions that had fixed answers. The paper outlines the process of data collection in clear and logical processes (Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt, 2015).
The last phase is analysis of data collected, which is often identified as the most daunting tasks. This is because it is associated with complex statistical tests. The study clearly identifies the statistical tests that were undertaken including descriptive and inferential statistics in order to identify the causal and effect relationship between the variables. In this context, the demographics attributes were summarized using descriptive statistics. The study’s continuous variables was summarized using mean, standard deviation, and mean (Dobson et al., 2016).
Results of study
The discussion of the study findings flow logically and have been associated with literature review. However, the researcher does not indicate if the hypothesis supports the findings or not. The study discussions do not indicate if the findings relate to conceptual framework or not. However, the interpretations as well as the inferences met are clearly associated with study results. The significance of study findings is stated. The researcher also explores clinical significance and its clinical implication of the study (Polit and Beck, 2006; Jackson et al., 2014).
In this context, the paper explains the protocol for the proposed intervention which is use of SMS4BG trial to explore its impact on diabetes self management program. According to the study findings, this kind of intervention provides tailored support for people with poorly controlled diabetes, especially those living in remote areas. The study develops a protocol that builds on previous evidence on the impact of technology in people with diabetes. The researcher states that the pilot study indicates that the intervention is applicable and is perceived and important in patients diagnosed with diabetes across the country (Dobson et al., 2016).
Ethical considerations
There are four fundamental ethical principles including justice, non-maleficence, autonomy and beneficence. The principle of autonomy implies that participants have the right to decide whether or not they want to participate in research without any coercion or have fear of what the research is investigating. The Non-maleficence principle implies that the participants are protected from any kind of physical or psychological harm.
Beneficence principle in this context implies that the research should have positive impact to the patient and the society. Justice in case implies that the research should ensure that all participants are treated equally. In addition, moral rules connected with these ethical principles include fidelity, veracity, privacy and confidentiality (Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt, 2015).
To ensure that these ethical considerations are observed is by ensuring that the institutional review boards approve research before it takes place. This is to ensure that the principles and moral rules are adhered to. In this context, the research team sought ethical approval from Health and Disability Ethics Committee (14/STH/162), and that each participant signed an informed consent (Dobson et al., 2016).
Conclusion
The paper concludes by discussing the significance of the study findings. The study makes generalization but indicates that caution should be taken when implementing the recommendations depending on the study purpose and design. The paper does not make any meaningful recommendations for further investigations (Polit and Beck, 2006).
References
Dobson, R., Whittaker, R., Jiang, Y., Shepherd, M., Maddison, R., Carter, K., Cutfield, R., McNamara, C., Khanolkar, M., and Murphy, R. (2016). Text message-based diabetes self management support (SMS4BG): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 17: 179. doi: 10.1186/s13063-016-1305-5.
Hinshaw, L., & Basu, A. (2015). Technology Use for Problem Solving in Adolescent Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics, 17(7), 443–444. http://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2015.0175
Jackson, I. L., Adibe, M. O., Okonta, M. J., & Ukwe, C. V. (2014). Knowledge of self-care among type 2 diabetes patients in two states of Nigeria. Pharmacy Practice, 12(3), 404.
