Environmental issues Research Study

Environmental issues
Environmental issues

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Environmental issues

How does the plummeting of oil prices affect the climate?

The recent fall in oil price from about USD 115 to 50 per barrel in mid-2014 and August 2015 respectively has contributed to diverse views regarding the adverse effects on the environment. These environmental issues views may be divided into three groups;

a) Plummeting oil price is regarded to exert downward strain on gas oil cost as well as the price of natural gas. This is likely to divert significant ventures from environmentally sustainable energy methods to gas-driven electric plants. The required change of the globe’s energy technologies from fossil fuels to low-carbon techniques may be significantly stopped (Kurtz, 2004).

b) Falling oil prices and the low cost of petroleum by-products including gasoline, may exert increased demand on internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicles. This may hinder not only development but also diffusion of ecologically friendly options, like electric vehicles (EVs) that do not emit CO2 emissions. Also, advanced vehicle travel may, in turn, lead to further emissions.

c) In the context of low oil price, global attempts to attain the relevant diplomatic agreements on the conservation of the planet, like the UN Sustainable Development Summit, could be hindered by the remarkable opportunity costs countries will experience in dissociating from fossil fuels.

Environmental issues

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Electric Vehicles

Plummeting oil prices are regularly seen as contribute to reduced pump price of gasoline and diesel. Something, some people believe that can adversely affect a nascent sector of Zero-emission automobiles like EVs, which use fuel-cell technologies or even lithium-ion battery, which some see as a challenge when it comes to competing with incumbent ICE. In reality, reduced oil cost per barrel does not imply low pump prices.

Less than a half of the retail cost of diesel and gasoline in the United States is based on the cost of crude oil. The remaining is going to refinery, distribution, marketing and taxes. As as matter of fact, much as the price of crude oil has declined to approximately 57% since 2014, gasoline has reduced by about 36% (U.S. Department of Energy 2016).

With the considerable reduction of oil prices, it is not certain the degree of EV producers will be affected. For instance, the main players, in battery-driven EVs, Telsa and target premium Model S cars and compete with other premium car producers.In this case, the client base is less concerned with opportunity costs of using electricity as a result of the price of oil. Instead, they are mainly interested in environmental benefits as well as reputation associated with having a Telsa.

Nevertheless, the price of gasoline has little impact on the general demand of vehicle travel; this means that vehicle travel is, in fact, inelastic. This may illustrate by the ill-timed reality of the present day transport structure is significantly reliant on oil. Individuals want to move around, go their workplaces, take children to school and buy goods. Particularly, in the United States individual motorized mobility, ICE is the most suitable alternative for personal transport. They prefer to purchase and use gas despite its costs since it’s a necessity.

Environmental issues

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Thus plummeting price of fuel may be expected to have little impact on the CO2 emission in the environment. Regardless of the falling oil price, renewable energy is primarily cost-competitive with fossil fuel in different areas. For certain applications including off-grid, they are without a doubt superior. Moreover, solar PV cells are cost-competitive at utility-level. These is likely to develop further while the falling costs of battery technologies can, together with widespread use of smart grid applications, result in an absolute change in terms of how energy is produced and used (COSNRC, 2003).

More so, the plummeting oil price poses a low-carbon transmission cannot be overlooked, since full influence on deployment and investment in renewable energy is not evident yet. Again, it is challenging to establish the appropriate counterfactual of how to be invested in renewable energy with the recent oil price reductions and therefore to recognize the degree of harm on climate. 

Nonetheless, it is proposed that the latest plummeting oil price has hindered the installation of new investments as well as shale exploration, as the majority are not viable based on the current costs. This demonstrates that falling oil price can materialize like a two-fold sword. On one hand, possible increasing demand for oil while diluting economic incentives for changing to low-carbon options, which can prevent supply by ensuring that new investments are economically not viable on the other.

Perhaps the question one would ask is whether or not the current oil price nosedive has an effect on the environment. For too long environmental activists have been concerned with carbon taxes to inflame oil costs and pave the way for clean-energy innovations. However, the recent price crash has been upheld as good for the environment, since it could gravely weaken big oil and its grip on the world’s energy business (Kurtz, 2004).

Environmental issues

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Oil prices are now less than 50% of what it used to cost in less than one year ago. Logically, this may escalate the volume of oil burned regarding energy, largely because people are somewhat less cautious with cheap stuff, and because plummeting fuel costs will spur economic activities. Low fuel cost will equally deject outlay in alternative sources of energy like renewables. However, the oil greed demonstrates no signs of easing, as some of the leading oil producing nations under the OPEC umbrella are not ready to pump more oil to the market.

The high cost of oil reduces petroleum demand an aspect that makes petroleum options more viable, while plummeting oil costs re-energize the demand for the product, culminating in massive production due to demand.  When oil prices go up, people tend to drive less, but with low oil prices, people prefer fuel-guzzlers because of the purchasing power. Nonetheless, there is an argument that price decline could enhance green gains. That is mainly because low oil costs may spell doom for big oil and the necessity to look for alternative sources of black coal.

Precisely, declining oil costs make a huge investment in new oil reserves appear like bad deals because of the high costs associated with drilling new sites, whether it deep off-shore drilling or Arctic (U.S. Department of Energy 2016). Analysts suggest that unrelenting oil costs could weaken investment by entities involved in oil probe and production. Again, dropping oil prices will slow the need for developing alternative sources of clean energy. This will help conserve the environment by making the coal and oil deposits unburnable hence curtailing global temperature rise to two degrees Centigrade.

Environmental issues

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The reality about oil companies is to make a profit.  So, falling oil prices will mean less exploration, an issue that will help conserve the environment because some of the most ecologically hurting oil exploration transpire in the expensive regions. The underlying economics with cheap oil is increased consumption. Commuters are more likely to avoid cycling during winter.

The demand for petroleum is widely unbendable, in simple words; people may hardly change with a change in pricing (Kurtz, 2004). While crude oil is employed to make petroleum items used to fuel airplanes, vehicles; warm homes and produce pharmaceutical products, less activity owing to dropping oil prices will reverse the adverse effects that the glut for the exploration has had on the environment.                                           

Exploration and oil drilling distracts land and maritime environments. These activities may hamper fish and marine life. While modern technology can enhance the proficiency of exploration and drilling operations, dropping, oil prices will lessen these activities. Hydraulic fracturing is a method employed to produce oil not only from shale but also from tight rock formations. This approach has enabled the US to enhance its domestic fuel production while minimizing the amount of fuel imported.        

    Environmental issues

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These are ecological issues related to this technique. Fracturing rocks involve large quantities of water and utilize high levels of hazardous chemicals to produce fuel from rocks. In particular regions, the use considerable amount of water to produce fuel can remarkably impact the availability of water as well as aquatic life. Faulty wells or poor handling may lead to spills and leaks. With less activity when it comes to exploration, the marine life would be saved from such disasters. Furthermore, hydraulic fracturing generates significant amounts of waste water, which contains chemicals and other hazardous compounds that require treatment before recycle or disposal.

Since the quantity of water utilized and intricacy of treating particular waste water, treatment and disposal are crucial and challenging. In most cases, disposal of sewage entails injecting it into deep wells, which can contribute to earthquakes, in turn, lead to adverse effects on the environment. However, the perpetual oil price drop will mean less activity in this sector hence less hazardous substance will be generated.

Environmental issues

References

Committee on Oil in the Sea, National Research Council. (COSNRC) (2003). Oil in the Sea III: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Available from http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10388.html.

Kurtz, Rick S. (2004). Coastal oil pollution: Spills, crisis, and policy change. Review of Policy Research 21, no. 2: 201-19.

U.S. Department of Energy (2016). “Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.” Available from              http://www.eere.energy.gov.

Environmental issues

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Ecology World Crisis Essay Paper

Ecology World Crisis
Ecology World Crisis

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Ecology World Crisis

Introduction

Ecologists agree to the fact that ecology world crisis that is facing the world today is attributed to the element of capitalism with the only real solution to this found in socialism. It is essential to note that many people have given explanations about the world with no formidable solutions and tasks in changing the factors that affect it (Boehlert, Strzepek, Chapra, Fant, Gebretsadik, Lickley, &. Martinich, 2015).

The environmental issues that exist in the imperialists states can be mitigated in the event that sufficient resources specifically time, labor and energy are directed towards these actions. This would therefore require some change in the manner in which consumption patterns are made. This paper consequently seeks to conduct a study on the ecological issues that the world is facing that include environmental problems such as greenhouse effect that is done through the emission of gasses over the expanse and that originate from the fossil fuels.

Ecological Crisis

Ecological crisis is one of the factors that have turned out to be of interest in this current dispensation. According to Negi, & Maikhuri (2013), ecological crisis can be termed as the occurrence of problematic changes within the physical, biological, chemical and environmental composition of the earth’s ecosystems as a result of human made and natural reasons (pp.452).

Through the development of human capacity, the environment has been viewed as changing, a factor that has seen the ecological balance loose its originality, with this damaging the ecosystems within the local and global level. It is for this reason vital to note that there is a need of establishing an ecological balance in this world which remains the final goal of this focus.

Ecology World Crisis

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The cause of the greenhouse effect is attributed to the rise of activities that have taken a central role win a capitalist economy which as seen the inclusion of fossils as an approach of generating energy for use in transport(Tauringana, & Chithambo, 2015). These are thus determined as the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions since every tone of fossil fuel that is burned produces close to 3.7 tons of carbon dioxide. This gas is considered as chemically unreactive and may not be gotten rid of easily since it is emitted from the exhausts.

The greenhouse effect has then been established as a serious problem since the earth warms is warmed by the atmosphere which acts like a protective layer since without this, the temperatures within the earth’s surface would escalate to -18 degrees centigrade(Tauringana, & Chithambo, 2015).

Heat from the sun is consequently known to pass through an atmosphere, an element that warms it up as this emits heat in the form of infra-red radiations. Some of this heat is trapped on the atmosphere with the rest escaping into the earth’s space. The greenhouse gases aid the atmosphere in trapping more radiations, with this gradually warming more than expected.

Ecology World Crisis

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Problems of the Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is responsible in the raising of temperatures of the planet, a factor that affects the earth’s ecosystems since they remain fragile and serious heat changes may affect the systems. According to a panel on the changes in climate, it has been predicted that the rise of the degrees in temperature will be experienced by the year 2025, with this having the capacity to cripple the Corn Belts in North America which centrally provides the worlds grains.

According to Harris (2012), these effects will definitely see the rise in food prices and the limitation of food to the Third World nations (pp.572). This means that some nations which lie further north would be in a position to grow crops that they have in the past growth.

On the other hand, the rising sea levels have also been an area that is threatening many ecologists. This event is known to result from the melting of the polar ice caps that leads to severe flooding in many regions(Harris, 2012). Most of the nations that are likely to suffer from this issue are considered to be the states that are considered as poor especially the Southern Pacific, the Islands of Caribbean, Indian Ocean and Mediterranean that are formulated as an alliance of other small states.

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Solution of this Ecological Crisis

It is easier enough for individuals to mention some of the elements that are required to rectify these situations than in engaging in the act. The reduction of energy conservation approaches and including alternative sources of energy such as the nuclear power is one of the fundamental ways of managing this crisis (Alberti, Primavera, Vecchio, Lepreti, & Carbone, 2015). 

Additionally, the inclusion of free public transport within different nations would be another aspect in managing thins crisis since cars would be turned for recreational purposes. There is also a need to ensure that the destruction of forests is stopped and to incorporate reforestation programs in nations.

The reduction in the use of fossil fuels is another factor that would considerably reduce the levels of carbon dioxide that is produced which will in turn see the reduction of the pollutants that result in acidic rain. This may only be achieved through the use of less energy systems or through the incorporation of alternative sources of energy (Remais, Hess, Ebi, Markandya, Balbus, Wilkinson, & .Chalabi, 2014).

Household on this note also need to consider that there is essence in reducing their consumer behaviors. In this case, there is a need to educate households on the value of turning off their lights when not in use, and avoiding the usage of cars for short distances. Households also need to make use of different inventions that make use of less energy.

Ecology World Crisis

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Conclusion

Ecological crisis that are currently facing the world today are attributed to the element of capitalism with the only real solution to this found in socialism. It is essential to note that many people have given explanations about the world with no formidable solutions and tasks in changing the factors that affect it.

An ecological crisis can be termed as the occurrence of problematic changes within the physical, biological, chemical and environmental composition of the earth’s ecosystems as a result of human made and natural reasons (Remais, et.al.2014).

As determined in this study, cause of the greenhouse effect is attributed to the rise of activities that have taken a central role win a capitalist economy which as seen the inclusion of fossils as an approach of generating energy for use in transport.

In solving this ecological crisis, it is essential to ensure that appropriate approaches are directed towards the reduction of energy conservation approaches including alternative sources of energy such as the nuclear power is one of the fundamental ways of managing this crisis. Additionally, the inclusion of free public transport within different nations would be another aspect in managing thins crisis since cars would be turned for recreational purposes.

References

Alberti, T., Primavera, L., Vecchio, A., Lepreti, F., & Carbone, V. (2015). Spatial interactions in a modified Daisy world model: Heat diffusivity and greenhouse effects. Physical Review E: Statistical, Nonlinear & Soft Matter Physics, 92(5-B), 052717-1-052717-11. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.92.052717

Boehlert, B., Strzepek, K. M., Chapra, S. C., Fant, C., Gebretsadik, Y., Lickley, M., & … Martinich, J. (2015). Climate change impacts and greenhouse gas mitigation effects on U.S. water quality. Journal Of Advances In Modeling Earth Systems, 7(3), 1326-1338. doi: 10.1002/2014MS000400

Harris, G. P. (2012). Introduction to the special issue: ‘Achieving ecological outcomes’. Why is translational ecology so difficult?. Freshwater Biology, 571-6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2012.02773.x

Negi, V., & Maikhuri, R. (2013). Socio-Ecological and Religious Perspective of Agrobiodiversity Conservation: Issues, Concern and Priority for Sustainable Agriculture, Central Himalaya. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics, 26(2), 491-512. doi: 10.1007/s10806-012-9386-y

Remais, J. V., Hess, J. J., Ebi, K. L., Markandya, A., Balbus, J. M., Wilkinson, P., & … Chalabi, Z. (2014). Estimating the Health Effects of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies: Addressing Parametric, Model, and Valuation Challenges. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122(5), 447-455. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306744

Tauringana, V., & Chithambo, L. (2015). The effect of DEFRA guidance on greenhouse gas disclosure. British Accounting Review, 47(4), 425-444. doi:10.1016/j.bar.2014.07.002

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Pollution Prevention and Water Conservation

Pollution Prevention and Water Conservation
Pollution Prevention and Water Conservation

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Pollution Prevention and Water Conservation

Water is a very essential commodity in life. It supports the life of human beings, plants and animals. Additionally, water is used in various processes in the world. All production processes are supported by water. As a result of the great importance of water in life, it is important to ensure water conservation and pollution prevention all the time. It is important to conserve water to ensure that it is always available and in a safe state.

For water conservation, everybody should play a part through planting of trees. According to Ehlers, and Krafft (2011), planting as many trees as possible plays a major role in water conservation. This is through preventing direct heat from the sun. Plantations are known to prevent water sources from being interfered with. Additionally, trees are known to play a major role in the formation of rain. Additionally, everybody should be able to try as much as possible to create water reservoirs within their environment.

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Prevention of water pollution should be made the responsibility of every individual in the world (Unesco, 2006). So that water may be kept free from pollution, there are actions that should be taken by all means. Ensuring that sewerage systems are well managed is one of the things that are likely to avoid water pollution. With proper sewerage systems, all waste will be driven to the desired disposal areas and not the water points.

Secondly, proper garbage disposal is also necessary in the prevention of water pollution. Additionally, everyone should ensure that chemical substances are not poured or drained into water points. Chemical substances should be disposed off as per the requirements of the control boards. This will ensure that no water is polluted by anyone using chemicals in one way or another. Furthermore, everyone should try as much as possible to come up with proper sanitation systems. This is a good way of ensuring that all refuse is managed properly thus avoiding water pollution.

References

Ehlers, E. &Krafft, T. (2011), Intergrated Management of Water Resources, Springer

Unesco (2006), water: a shared responsibility, Berghahn Books.

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Water Conservation and Prevention of Pollution

Water Conservation and Prevention of Pollution
Water Conservation and Prevention of Pollution

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Water Conservation and Prevention of Pollution

Water is a very essential commodity in life. It supports the life of human beings, plants and animals. Additionally, water is used in various processes in the world. All production processes are supported by water. As a result of the great importance of water in life, it is important to ensure water conservation all the time. It is important to conserve water to ensure that it is always available and in a safe state.

For water conservation, everybody should play a part through planting of trees. According to Ehlers, and Krafft (2011), planting as many trees as possible plays a major role in water conservation. This is through preventing direct heat from the sun. Plantations are known to prevent water sources from being interfered with. Additionally, trees are known to play a major role in the formation of rain. Additionally, everybody should be able to try as much as possible to create water reservoirs within their environment.

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Prevention of water pollution should be made the responsibility of every individual in the world (Unesco, 2006). So that water may be kept free from pollution, there are actions that should be taken by all means. Ensuring that sewerage systems are well managed is one of the things that are likely to avoid water pollution. With proper sewerage systems, all waste will be driven to the desired disposal areas and not the water points.

Secondly, proper garbage disposal is also necessary in the prevention of water pollution. Additionally, everyone should ensure that chemical substances are not poured or drained into water points. Chemical substances should be disposed off as per the requirements of the control boards. This will ensure that no water is polluted by anyone using chemicals in one way or another. Furthermore, everyone should try as much as possible to come up with proper sanitation systems. This is a good way of ensuring that all refuse is managed properly thus avoiding water pollution.

References

Ehlers, E. &Krafft, T. (2011), Intergrated Management of Water Resources, Springer

Unesco (2006), water: a shared responsibility, Berghahn Books.

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Environmental Protection and Restoration Plan (EPRP)

Environmental Protection and Restoration Plan (EPRP)
Environmental Protection and Restoration Plan (EPRP)

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Environmental Protection and Restoration Plan (EPRP)

Introduction

            Environmental awareness is always the key to improve knowledge regarding the effects of changing climate. This paper will be trying to consider regarding the practices and principles of Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle as part of its discussion. It seeks to concentrate on the three habitats, which are home, workplace, and community. In addition, the discussion will be categorizing the three habitats to reveal recommended practices to preserve the environment.

            Beginning at home, discipline always starts in your household wherein you always show your routine and respect with your personal chores and environment.  Beginning with reduce; energy conservation can be applied by only consuming resources that you need. This includes opening the faucet when you only need water, using charcoal instead of using gas range system, and using electricity when you only use it such as lighting on a certain room.

When reusing, it is important to use remaining natural resources such as contained water, stored food, and unused garments that are still clean to prevent wasting of water, electricity, and gas. Recycling is observed upon segregation of your garbage, in which biodegradable materials can be used as fertilizers. Recycling used cups, plastics, and metals into furniture is another essential environmental restoration in order to prevent more garbage wastage that could harm our environment in the future as related by James, et al., (2015).

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            At the workplace, energy conservation is the main issue as well as managing waste materials. By reducing, energy conservation can be utilized by installing alternative energy resource such as solar panels at the top of the building to have an adequate supply of energy. By waste management, it is important to avoid habits of disposing unused tissues or plastic materials that can add pollutants. For reuse, used papers can be an alternative to scrap papers as well as materials to be manipulated for cleaning materials.

Plastic bottles can be reused as containers for detergents and solvents so that it will not be thrown somewhere else that could cause an environmental concern. For recycling, each office is equipped with recycling machines that aims to convert waste materials into a renewable source of energy. One example is by compressing all garbage and then turning it into a fossil fuel for burning.

            As for the community, environmental protection and restoration plan starts with the reduce, which is all about maintaining the land area of watersheds and declared national parks in order to prevent scarcity of resources. As for the reuse, it is important that old materials will be again repaired in order to be reused. This includes old fashioned automobiles that can still be used as a significant transportation material as a way to promote artilleries for transport. As for recycling, there should be more facilities that accommodate waste products such as old plastics, papers, and rubbers that can be transformed into usable furniture that can generate profits.

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            The recommendation that can be applied is about the significance of information and dissemination campaign. The reason behind is that it aim to promote awareness to the community regarding the use of environmental protection and restoration plan. Any environmental plans will be appreciated by the public because they have had understood about the significance of preserving their ecological integrity. Trust and cooperation is important because there will be a sense of unity that can be applied by the members of the community.

This will help local government units to efficiently establish environmental protection operations that can promote restoration of the environment. Protection and restoration plan becomes more efficient due to the initiative of the community members after they have been informed about the threats that exist in our environment and also are aware about the solutions that can mitigate environmental hazards according to Black &Cherrier (2010).

References

Black, Iain R. &Cherrier, Helene (2010). “Anti-consumption as part of living a sustainable lifestyle: Daily practices, contextual motivations and subjective values” (PDF). Journal of Consumer Behavior 9 (6): 437

James, Paul, Magee, Liam, Scerri, Andy & Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice:. London: Routledge.         

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Regulatory mechanisms for the oil and gas industry in a developing world setting

oil and gas industry
oil and gas industry

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Regulatory mechanisms for the oil and gas industry in a developing world setting

Introduction

As today’s society is organized, oil plays a critical and immense role. Petroleum products represent a lot more than just a major energy source that mankind uses. Other than being a vital source of energy, oil serves as feedstock for a number of consumer goods, and it therefore plays a pertinent and increasing role in the lives of people (Mariano & Rovere, 2012). Conversely, the oil and gas industry holds a significant potential of hazards for the environment and it might impact the environment at dissimilar levels including soil, water and atmosphere, and subsequently every living being on earth.

In this context, pollution is the most dangerous and extensive consequence of the activities of the gas/oil industry (Buchsbaum, 2013; Mariano & Rovere, 2012). This essay critically examines the regulatory mechanisms for the gas and oil industry within the context of the developing world. The essay does so by presenting theoretical, legal framework and environmental policies employed by developing countries in managing the impacts of the gas and oil industry.

The essay will particularly explore the regulatory mechanisms in the following oil-producing developing countries located in the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America: Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago, Algeria, Yemen, Philippines, Cambodia, and Sudan. Others are Papua New Guinea, Kazakhstan, Thailand, Afghanistan, Mauritania, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

This essay will also examine the efficacy of the regulatory mechanisms in the aforementioned oil producing developing nations. This will help to determine whether or not the regulatory mechanism has actually been effective in preventing companies in the oil and gas industry from contaminating the environment in their operations.

The paper may determine that in some oil-producing developing nations, there are regulatory mechanisms but their enforcement is weak. This poor implementation of regulatory mechanisms could be due to a number of reasons such as lack of monetary and human resources required to ensure effective environmental governance, as well as corruption (Ingelson & Nwapi, 2014). In the countries with weak environmental laws, this essay provides a number of recommendations to ensure strict enforcement of environment laws for environmental protection in oil-producing developing nations.

Environmental impact of oil and gas industry

Pollution is linked to almost every activity throughout every phase of the production of gas/oil from exploratory activities to refining. Exploration of oil brings about many environmental problems such as the environmental degradation and economic loss due to gas flaring; soil contamination as a result of oil leaks and spill; and increased deforestation (Perunović & Vidić-Perunovié, 2012).

Gas emissions, waste waters, aerosols, and solid waste produced throughout drilling, production, refining and shipping amount to more than 810 dissimilar chemicals, amongst which prevail petroleum and oil products. The other impacts on the environment include contamination of the ground water, poorer quality of water, acid rain, and the intensification of the greenhouse effect (Klare, 2014). Additionally, the gas/oil industry might contribute to the loss of biodiversity and the destruction of ecosystems, which might be unique (Mariano & Rovere, 2012).   

In any nation around the world, particularly developing nations, the discovery of natural resource could be the start of economic growth in that nation. If managed well, the wealth derived from that natural resource can promote sustained economic development within that nation. Duncan (2013) noted that the exploration and exploitation of natural resources usually comes with a number of challenges, the major one being the industry’s negative environmental impact.

It is notable that the environmental impact of the gas and oil industry could be very disastrous to the country, that it necessitates a properly designed policy for managing controlling, and monitoring the industry’s negative impact on the environment (Ingelson & Nwapi, 2014). In many developing countries such as Mauritania, Cambodia, Kazakhstan, Colombia, Algeria, Nigeria, Trinidad and Tobago, Argentina, Peru, Angola, Venezuela, and Ghana among others, the gas and oil industry is marred by various environmental challenges (Tan, Faundez & Ong, 2015).

The environmental challenges are even considered a significant national concern since most of these developing nations have actually not performed well in terms of managing environmental problems brought about by the oil and gas industry (Vining, 2012).

The regulatory mechanisms in developing countries

The aim of environmental regulations in the natural gas and oil industry is basically to develop the framework in which regulatory programmes ensure that safeguarding of the environment is given greatest consideration as regards the development of gas and oil resources (Duncan, 2013). The goals of gas and oil regulation are to: present an effective and efficient framework for facilitating development and exploration of the nation’s oil/gas resources; reduce or eliminate risks to public safety and health and the environment and ensure proper resource management; and provide certainty and clarity to license holders with regard to the regulator’s requirements (Anejionu et al., 2015).

There are many developing nations that are producers or potential producers of oil and gas. These are illustrated in the table below:

Sub-Saharan AfricaThe Caribbean and South AmericaEurope and AsiaNorth Africa and Middle East
NigeriaMexicoPapua New GuineaYemen
Sao Tome and PrincipeVenezuelaThailandSyria
AngolaColombiaChinaEgypt
MauritaniaPeruPhilippinesAlgeria
Democratic Republic of CongoArgentinaAzerbaijan 
GabonEquadorKazakhstan 
CameroonTrinidad and TobagoAfghanistan 
SudanBrazilCambodia 
Ghana Indonesia 

In most of these developing nations, there is in place an adequately appropriate, though mostly theoretical, legal framework and environmental policy that is used to manage the impacts of the gas and oil industry (Tan, Faundez & Ong, 2015). On the whole, the regulatory system principles that have been adopted already in many developing nations are for the most part transposed onto the national legislation of these countries.

Put simply, most developing nations that produce oil have developed, in theory, a regulatory and legal framework consistent with the ones in place for the benchmark nations (Tan, Faundez & Ong, 2015). Most of these nations have established a dedicated institution whose purpose is to manage the social and environmental impacts of gas and oil industry; in most cases, this is usually a ministry for environment.

The regulatory, legal, and contractual frameworks in oil producing developing nations are as described below: environmental governance objectives – in these countries, the legal system is mainly reliant upon incentives or penalties to accomplish its environmental objectives. Constitutional rights and obligations – in oil producing developing countries, there are constitutional obligations and rights which specifically address ownership of natural resources, address the status of indigenous communities, sustain and protect the environment, and protect the health of people (The World Bank, 2011).

Environmental policy for the oil and gas industry – in the oil producing developing nations,

(i) specific laws have been put in place which establish policy for the development of this industry. Relevant regulations have also been duly enacted which give direction to executing the policy.

(ii) There are environmental laws which set policy for addressing environmental issues which arise from the exploration and development of oil and gas. There are a number of regulations duly passed providing direction for execution of policy (The World Bank, 2011).

(iii) Within the context of gas and oil industry development, oil producing developing countries have a set of laws which establish policy regarding use of water; emissions and effluents into the water, into the atmosphere, and onto land; noise; pollution; abandonment and decommissioning; and waste management including the management of hazardous wastes (The World Bank, 2011).

In addition, appropriate regulations have been duly enacted which give direction to the execution of the policies and have quantitative standards.      

Production-sharing agreement/host government agreement

(i) in the oil producing developing countries, there is a particular host government agreement which clearly spells out the contractual obligations and rights of the host government that arise out of a gas and oil development. In addition, this specific agreement directly addresses the host government’s related environmental obligations and rights (The World Bank, 2011).

(ii) In these oil producing developing countries, there is a particular production-sharing agreement which spells out the contractual obligations and rights of the proponents of a gas and oil development. Moreover, this production-sharing agreement addresses the proponents’ related environmental obligations and rights (The World Bank, 2011). International agreements and obligations

(i) most national governments of the oil producing developing countries have included international law rights as well as obligations in their legal system which addresses the environmental issues that arise out of gas and oil industry development.

(ii) The governments of these developing nations have established policy for addressing possible environmental impacts which affect adjacent nations by means of consultation or notification.

(iii) For transnational firms that operate in the gas and oil industry in these nations, the companies are required to comply with the corporate policies developed due to the jurisdictional requirements followed within its country of origin (The World Bank, 2011).

Environmental disputes

(i) in these nations, there is actually an important access to a quasi-judicial commission or board as well as access to a national court system for every stakeholder to a functioning judiciary for ultimate, independent adjudication of disputes and determination of remedies that arise out of the environmental implications of the gas and oil industry development.

(ii) These countries also have laws which identify and establish public hearings or appeals process for projects that are complex and/or controversial.

(iii) Members of the public have access to the legal system and the court to get remedies for environmental nonconformity (The World Bank, 2011).

Protected areas, parks, and other restrictions on gas and oil activities – in many oil producing developing nations, the development of gas and oil is inadmissible within protected areas and parks. Before the bidding process, there are clearly identified restrictions which apply (The World Bank, 2011).

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Many developing nations have in place regulations and laws on the environment that seek to regulate the activities of companies in the oil and gas industry to minimize the negative impact of their activities on the environment (Abdalla, Siti-Nabiha & Shahbudin, 2013). There are oil/gas drilling and production regulations that restrict oil/gas companies operating in the developing country from using land within 50 yards of any public road, reservoir, dam or building; establish that oil/gas companies should take appropriate measures to prevent pollution of water, and to stop it if it happens; and prohibit oil and gas companies, without rightful permission, from cutting down of trees in the developing country’s forest reserves (Abdalla, Siti-Nabiha & Shahbudin, 2013).

Furthermore, many oil-producing developing nations have in place petroleum refining regulations which require the manager of an oil refinery to take the reasonable measures in preventing and controlling environmental pollution, and which stipulate how infringement of the regulation would be punishable, for instance through imprisonment or fine (Anifowose et al., 2014).

Oil-producing developing nations have also put in place regulations that set down the necessary precautions that any oil and gas company in the production, loading, transportation as well as storage of petroleum products is required by law to take in order to prevent pollution on the environment (Laurent, 2015). There are also relevant regulations concerned with the control and licensing of oil and gas refining activities. Such regulations prohibit unlicensed refining of hydrocarbon oils and petroleum products in locations outside an oil refinery, and require hydrocarbon oil refineries in the oil-producing developing country to maintain pollution prevention facilities (Aldhous, 2012).

In addition, these countries have in place regulations that seek to prevent the discharge of hydrocarbon oil and petroleum products from ships. Such regulations prohibit ships of oil and gas companies in the oil-producing developing country from discharging oil into shorelines or territorial waters (Abdalla, Siti-Nabiha & Shahbudin, 2013). These regulations have also made it an offence for companies that transport petroleum products to discharge any oil on the waters of the developing nation.

Oil and gas companies are required to install antipollution equipment in their ships (Atsegbua, 2012). The laws actually make such discharge punishable with a heavy fine and require the oil/gas company to keep records of incidences of oil discharge into the country’s shorelines or territorial waters. The oil-producing developing nations in which oil/gas is extracted offshore have in place relevant laws for oil pollution prevention offshore (Laurent, 2015). All discharges of oil from gas/oil offshore installations need to be controlled in a careful manner in order to reduce marine environment contamination and the contamination of the living resources which the marine environment supports (Farrington, 2014). 

Many oil producing developing nations also have some type of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process which has been included in their regulatory and legal framework. Nonetheless, the emphasis of the process is largely directed towards regulatory approval of gas and oil projects and not towards developing a life-cycle approach for reducing social and environmental impacts all through the life of the whole project (Duncan, 2013).

Environmental Impact Assessment is essentially a legal procedure wherein the oil and gas company is required to present environmental information to a consenting body so that the information could be utilized to make better informed decisions. In addition, EIA entails publication and public disclosure/comment or consultation. Visser and Larderel (2012) reported that this information is often presented in an Environmental Impact Assessment Report.

There are a number of goals of an Environmental Impact Assessment. An EIA is a tool for identifying possible environmental impacts of a proposed project, assessing how important or significant these environmental impacts are and propose suitable mitigation, monitoring and management measures for preventing or reducing impacts to levels that are good enough (Visser & Larderel, 2012).

Environmental Impact Assessment is also a tool and process that aids decision-making. The information collected during an Environmental Impact Assessment could feedback into project design. Outcomes of Environmental Impact Assessment are usually utilized in managing subsequent stages of project design, construction, as well as operation (Visser & Larderel, 2012).

As dictated by best practice, the full extent of the Environmental Impact Assessment process in some oil-producing developing nations has yet to be executed. What lacks in particular is adequate and systematic participation of local stakeholders and the public, access to baseline social and environmental information within the affected areas, comprehensive examination of project alternatives, as well as consideration of cumulative and regional impacts further than the project level (Visser & Larderel, 2012).

In most of these nations, project follow-up and environmental monitoring are seen as part of the Environmental Impact Assessment framework regulatory enforced. Even so, actual enforcement practices is usually insufficient, there is inadequate environmental monitoring, and monitoring data are either not divulged or they are not made extensively accessible to the affected stakeholders and the public (The World Bank, 2011). Furthermore, many oil producing developing nations have inadequate – at times completely absent – enforcement and control mechanisms in the post-Environmental Impact Assessment approval stage.

Although a lot of oil-producing developing nations claim that risk management procedures and regulatory enforcement mechanisms for gas and oil activities are included into the regulatory framework, actual enforcement of Environmental Impact Assessment approval conditions and regulatory limits on-the-ground is not happening systematically and effectively (The World Bank, 2011).        

Regulations and policies to reduce environmental impact of pit-wastewater: some oil-producing developing countries such as Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia and Thailand have in place appropriate regulations aimed at reducing the environmental impact of pit-wastewater which include wastewater and sludge that is generated through drilling activities (Mariano & Rovere, 2012). Oil and gas companies are required to install pit-wastewater processing systems.

To avoid affecting local environments, these companies are expected to return pit-wastewater – wastewater that treatment facilities emit and production water attendant to gas and oil – underground, and treat pit-wastewater with the use of microorganisms and discharge the treated water into the ocean (Perunović & Vidić-Perunovié, 2012). Companies are also required to design and install their facilities and establish operating manuals basing upon their risk assessment in order to prevent contamination as a result of crude oil and pit-wastewater leaks (Anomohanran, 2012).

Gas and oil companies are also required to establish an operating structure under which they monitor the operations of their facility with the use of twenty-four hour patrols and remote systems. This ensures that even in case of an accident, any leakages could be reduced (Mohamed & Al-Thukair, 2013)

Regulations and policies to prevent air pollution: in a number of oil-producing developing nations including Argentina and Thailand and Egypt, there are laws that require oil and gas companies to avoid air pollution as much as possible. Emissions from combustion equipment utilized in production sites such as gas engines and boilers are required to be below the regulation standard limits for concentrations of nitrous oxide and dust (Managi et al., 2012).

Critique of the impact and application of the regulatory framework in oil-producing developing nations 

Even though these developing nations have a regulatory framework, the efficacy of the regulatory frameworks is compromised by the lack of an adequately organized administrative structure which facilitates effective regulatory conformity and enforcement. Furthermore, the other factor that compromises the effectiveness of regulations is the lack of monetary and human resources required to ensure effective environmental governance.

In the oil producing developing nations, the institutions that are responsible for environmental management generally have inadequate or little resources – information systems, technology, training, personnel, and budget – to properly execute their strategies and perform their regulatory mandate (The World Bank, 2011).

Although the governance structure and frameworks are in existence in oil producing developing countries, the execution of governance in an effective and efficient environmental management system for gas and oil activities is not well established. As such, efforts are required for strengthening the technical and administrative capabilities of governments in such countries so as to improve the environmental governance of the gas and oil industry (Duncan, 2013).    

Nowadays, environmental concerns are not regularly taken into account in plans for offshore gas and oil exploration and development. Depending on the oil producing nation where they are working, most oil and gas corporations also operate to different social and environmental standards. In some oil producing developing nations, this implies that even the most fundamental requirements are not met (Tan, Faundez & Ong, 2015).

Decommissioning of infrastructure is also a key issue and is rarely taken into account during planning and control. The life of a lot of oil exploration wells is limited; some wells with as short as just 1 – 3 months, though their construction often has long-term impacts. If planning for decommissioning is taken into consideration in the process of design, then environmental disruption will be decreased (Vining, 2012). All in all, thanks to weak environmental laws in many oil producing developing countries, many oil and gas companies continue to cause irreparable damage to the environment through their gas and oil exploration and development activities.

What the governments need to do to strengthen their regulatory framework

Governments of these nations need to establish stringent laws and regulations and take drastic actions against any oil and gas company that violates such laws and regulations not only through paying of fines (Anejionu et al., 2015). Firms that violate the established laws/regulations have to be fined very exorbitantly to serve as a deterrent against other oil and gas companies that plan on deliberately and carelessly polluting the environment during their gas/oil exploration and development in developing nations.   

Conclusion

In conclusion, most developing nations that produce oil have developed, on paper, a regulatory and legal framework similar to the ones established in the benchmark nations. Many oil-producing developing countries have established a dedicated institution whose main purpose is to manage the environmental impacts of gas and oil industry. Although oil-producing emerging economies have a regulatory framework in place, the efficacy of the regulatory frameworks is compromised by the lack of a properly organized administrative structure that actually facilitates effective regulatory conformity and enforcement.

References

Abdalla, Y. A., Siti-Nabiha, A. K., & Shahbudin, A. (2013). Examining the regulatory frameworks for the oil and gas industry in Sudan. Journal Of Environmental Assessment Policy & Management, 15(1), -1. doi:10.1142/S1464333213500063

Aldhous, P. (2012). Drilling into the unknown. New Scientist, 213(2849), 8-10.

Anifowose, B., Lawler, D., Horst, D., & Chapman, L. (2014). Evaluating interdiction of oil pipelines at river crossings using Environmental Impact Assessments. Area, 46(1), 4-17. doi:10.1111/area.12065

Atsegbua, L. A. (2012). The Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development Act 2010: an examination of its regulatory framework. OPEC Energy Review, 36(4), 479-494. doi:10.1111/j.1753-0237.2012.00225.x

Buchsbaum, L. (2013). Oil & gas and agriculture look for common ground on water and environmental issues. Coloradobiz, 40(8), 34.

Duncan, C. (2013). Mediation in the oil and gas industry: Taking the best for the future. Dispute Resolution Journal, 68(4), 71-85.

Farrington, J. W. (2014). Oil Pollution in the Marine Environment II: Fates and Effects of Oil Spills. Environment, 56(4), 16-31. doi:10.1080/00139157.2014.922382

Hamso, B. (2015). New drive to end routine flaring. Energy Policy, 34(7): 21-27

Ingelson, A., & Nwapi, C. (2014). Environmental impact assessment process for oil, gas and mining projects in Nigeria: A critical analysis. LEAD Journal (Law, Environment & Development Journal), 10(1), 1-22.

Klare, M. T. (2014). Petro-machismo. Nation, 298(12), 30-32.

Laurent, G. (2015). A New Regulatory Paradigm for Over-the-Counter Oil Forward Contracts. Economic Affairs, 35(2), 299-305. doi:10.1111/ecaf.1212.

Managi, S., Opaluch, J. J., Di, J., & Grigalunas, T. A. (2012). Environmental Regulations and Technological Change in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry. Land Economics, 81(2), 303-319.

Mariano, J., & Rovere, E. L. (2012). Environmental impacts of the oil industry. Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems. (EOLSS).

Mohamed, L., & Al-Thukair, A. A. (2013). Environmental Assessments in the Oil and Gas Industry. Water, Air & Soil Pollution: Focus, 9(1/2), 99-105. doi:10.1007/s11267-008-9190-x

Perunović, Z., & Vidić-Perunovié, J. (2012). Environmental Regulation and Innovation Dynamics in the Oil Tanker Industry. California Management Review, 55(1), 130-148.

Senze, M., Kowalska-Góralska, M., Pokorny, P., Dobicki, W., & Polechoński, R. (2015). Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Bottom Sediments of Baltic Sea Catchment Rivers Affected by Operations of Petroleum and Natural Gas Mines in Western Pomerania, Poland. Polish Journal Of Environmental Studies, 24(5), 2167-2175. doi:10.15244/pjoes/40273

Tan, C., Faundez, J., & Ong, D. M. (2015). Regulating environmental responsibility for the multinational oil industry: Continuing challenges for international law. International Journal Of Law In Context, 11(2), 153-173. doi:10.1017/S1744552315000051

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RESPONSIBLE TOURISM AS THE KEY TO ETHICAL TOURISM PRACTICES

Responsible tourism
Responsible tourism

RESPONSIBLE TOURISM AS THE KEY TO ETHICAL TOURISM PRACTICES

Responsible Tourism

Responsible tourism is one of the key areas related to ethics and marketing in the tourism sector. In the article, Tourists’ Accounts of Responsible Tourism, Caruana et al. (2014) define responsible tourism by looking at the benefits gained by the host country, the ability to minimize impacts, engagement of the local community in decision making, and conservation of cultural heritage. The definitions aid in enforcing responsible tourism among the consumers.

Some of the major issues raised by the article about ethics in tourism were: participation in responsible tourism, social economy and environment, ethical marketing, and motivations factors for ethical tourism. Findings from the article revealed that responsible tourism is a concept involving market of heterogeneous consumers. By participating in responsible tourism, consumers and marketing firms can significantly improve ethical tourism behavior while promoting development, social interaction, and understanding with the host country.

Participating in Responsible Tourism

The accounts of tourists on responsible tourism can be defined using their experience and degree of involvement in responsible tourism. According to Winchenbach (2013), one of key strategy for developing ethical tourism is human capacity building. However, current literature pays little attention to operations factors that have a direct role in tourism.

Winchenbach notes that trainee’s personal motives, attitudes and the capacity to transmit knowledge can significantly improve transparency within communities. According to Salazar (2012), the society will be fully equipped to influence tourists and firms to practice responsible tourism. Affirmative action and active cooperation at the community level can go a long way in enabling the local community to overcome barriers to responsible tourism.

Consumer’s involvement in ethical tourism is usually dependent on the perceptions of an ideal culture that the consumers identify with. Albeit many tourists expressing participation in responsible tourisms, some engage in low level or no participation at all.  It all depends on the attitude, the perception of the host country and moral obligation of the consumers (Liu, 2003).

Some tourists have no business with the commercial or cultural issues of the community around. For example, one might say that relaxing or breaking away from work is what that concerns them and therefore fail to engage responsible tourism activities.

The government and tourism firms have a role in promoting responsible tourism.  Drivers, tour guides, and advertisers have a title role in creating awareness to the consumers, supporting the local county and begun obedient to the regulations of tourist’s authorities. The administration should be involved in zone divisions, issuance of licenses to guides and promoting cooperation amount different players.

Murphy (2013) as cited by Breugel (2013) stressed the numerous benefits of local community involvement in the development of responsible tourism. He argued that the industry can be destroyed if tourism and development planning fails to align with the expectations and capabilities of the host country. Although there is no literature in support of realistic ways of engaging the community directly in tourism development, there are several means and discussions on how they can be part of responsive tourism.

Some of these participations range from decision making and involvement in benefits so the tourism, showcasing of the society’s culture and assisting in tourism awareness campaigns (Bramwell, B. and Sharman, 1999; Stamboulis and Skayannis, 2003).

People will be more inclined to take part in ethical tourism activities like marketing if they are involved in discussion and decision-making process to voice their opinions (Holden, 2003). They will also volunteer in information sharing, interpretation and other tourism related activities and events. It is recommended to articulate the community values and generate local support for tourism development.

Factors to consider while planning for community involvement range from assessing the current commitment procedures, making first meetings with members of the community where issues of responsive tourism can be addressed, and gathering information. Collecting of data is done by reviewing the existing materials about trusts and determining whether there is sufficient information available for tourist interests.

Community meeting should also be conducted where proposals, opportunities, plans and feedback can be presented. The results of the meeting can be distributed to the public using relevant media while soliciting citizen’s feedback.

Social economy and environment considerations

There are a variety of economic, social and environmental factors associated with tourism. Understanding responsible tourism will help organizations and governments plan for sustainable tourism that takes care of the environment, economy and the social aspect of the host country (Stynes, 1997). Tourism leads to increased sales, the creation of job opportunities, tax revenues and income (Briedenhann, and Wickens, 2004; Frechtling, 2000).

Some of the direct effects on the economy are emergence and sustenance of lodgings, restaurants, and entertainment and transportation sectors. There are more direct impacts of tourism on the community that are quite clear. Nonetheless, responsible tourism is the key to productive and increased economic activities in an area (Wang and Davidson, 2010).

A transportation firm that attracts about 50 tourists every day can get more consumers to positive results from responsible traveler’s practices. The firm, for example, might get new 50 visitors in a day and double its daily income. If each visitor spends $50 for transport, the business will experience a positive change from $ 2500 to $ 5000.  If let’s say the new boom is sustained for the next 100 days, the region will, therefore, accumulate half a million in cash sales.

While the amount will be distributed among retailer’s owners, restaurants, and entertainers proportionally, another fraction will be channeled to cover for goods purchase and allow a significant amount of growth development of the region.

Ethical marketing

The importance of culture is critical in the ethical marketing of tourism (Gurel and Yaman 2006). In support of this idea, Fleckenstein and Huebsch (1999) argue that cultural difference is one of the top issues of international tourism. It may have a disproportional impact while making ethical and fruitful business decisions in a global setting (Payne and Dimanche (1996). 

Variations in the perceived importance of ethical marketing and social responsibility as the key determinants of a tourists firm’s effectiveness can be explained by the country difference. As Singhapakdi (2001) notes, these perceived variations include cultural differences and the variances in the economic environment as well as the firm’s climate, gender, and age.

Marketing ethics in tourism has been complicated by the idea that marketers must deal with a heterogeneous audience who possess different cultural attributes. The failure to apply ethical marketing may lead to two extremes. First, there will be the breach of ethics that will end to consumer contempt of the product, and the firm will suffer long term consequences. The next extreme will be immediate damage to both the individual and the host country.

Motivation factors for ethical tourism

            The article indicated that tourists engage in moral tourism where ” Our respondents also involved in what we might refer to as ‘morality plays,’ wherein the ethicality of their holidays was dramatized into tensions around nature, culture, and economy” (Caruana et al. 2014 pg. 125).  This engagement was categorized into fundamental or extrinsic goals.  The former refers the type goals meant to make money and are directed from the inside.

They are aimed at controlling people and achieving self-esteem needs such as social recognition.  The later refers to outer directed ends that include achieving real social interactions, making contributions related to the development and helping others. Intrinsic goals also encompass delighting in volunteer programs and personal growth efforts.  The interviews carried out revealed that tourists demonstrated a wide variety of themes and the respondents could position their experiences of responsible tourism as directed to immediate personal growth and family unions.

Extrinsic goal direction

There were several cases where tourists expressed self-interest motives as the reason for participation in responsible tourism. These motivations were partly connected to the issue of responsible tourism in ethical marketing.  The details and information presented to tourists through advertising were seen to have a huge impact on the role and motives of tourists in taking part in responsible tourism.

Ethical marketing was cited as one of the factors that attracted respondents to taking part in meaningful activities.  Consumers see the message and feel compelled to act. They believe what they hear and see and understand what to expect from it. According to Debicka and Jastrzabek (2014), responsibility is depicted as a conduit of personal assurance and a way of avoiding commercialization.

It links to personal benefits of a quality holiday filled with good value. Instead of using commercial links to access services such as food and accommodation, some tourist prefers to explore on their own and seek out new places. While they might be sensitive about ethical issues related to such endeavors, they are comfortable spending money on services that looked decent and appropriate.

 Responsible tourism (Ford and Acott, 2015) presents consumers with a good value proposition and serves them individual goals. Notably, a lot of tourists look for services that fit their individual needs and tailored specifically to meet their expectations. Mass marketing (Goodwin, 2001) is not favorable due to its perceived failure to offer customized information.

Consumers will always seek out things that can be well planned and pertains to their unique tastes. If the tourists desire to portray individuality and difference similar to their inner motivations that make them concerned about mass marketing (Ford, 1994). The construction of extrinsic goals is shaped by situational factors such as children, friends, and spouses who the consumers have duties to live up to. 

For example, a tourist who brings along her husband and children will have obligations to them and therefore seek out to engage in responsible tourism. This motivation would be different if she came alone. By bringing their husband children, people will effectively be ethical, take part in community engagement, prove to be good parents and take part in educative initiatives.

Intrinsic goals

Tourists explicitly express more intrinsic and outer directed goals within responsible tourism. In this type of ethical marketing, some consumers will seek to participate in conserving the environment, share the wealth and help others access quality life. One respondent interviewed in the research, Tourists’ Accounts of Responsible Tourism by Caruana et al. (2014) stated that going as responsible travelers will benefit the host country a lot.

Some will participate in responsible tourism to raise awareness of the positive and adverse effects they might have on the economy and the vulnerable social community. It’s conversely difficult to interact with the local community and tourists are advised to remain in the hotels if overcoming the challenges looks impossible. Meeting the locals is one of the most effective ways of understanding one’s impact on that community.

Conclusion

Responsible tourism has a broad range of cultural, economic and environmental benefits varying from job creation, revenue generation, to increased sales. The article on responsible tourism revealed that consumers do not have fixed perceptions of ethics, marketing, and social issues on travel products. The market is heterogeneous and defines responsible tourism about aspects of their behavior, interactions with local community and their impacts on the host country.

There were several themes identified by the article ranging from motivations for engagement in ethical and responsible tourism, marketing and experience. Consumers take part in ethical issues by being part of responsible tourism. Tourists’ involvement in ethical tourism depends on their perceived notion of the culture they identify with. Some take part in high-level issues of marketing, social and moral matters while others do not participate at all. 

The motives could be extrinsic, meaning they are personal in nature. They could also be intrinsic where people engage in ethical tourism to help others, spread cultural values and be part of development agendas. Ethical issues in tourism should not be left to policy makers, governments and marketing firms alone. All players including tourists, members of the local community, marketers, environmentalists, government agencies, and businesses should take the time to part of ensuring tourism is conducted in a responsible, social friendly and ethical manner.

References

Bramwell, B. and Sharman, A., 1999.  Tourism policymaking. Annals of tourism research, 26(2), pp.392-415.

Briedenhann, J. and Wickens, E., 2004. Tourism for the economic development. Tourism Management, 25(1), pp.71-79.

Caruana, R., Glazer, S., Crane, A. and McCabe, S., 2014. Tourists’ accounts of responsible tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 46, pp.115-129.

Debicka, O. and Oniszczuk-Jastrzabek, A., 2014, January. Responsible tourism in Poland. In Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management in Opatija. Biennial International Congress. Tourism & Hospitality Industry (p. 189). The university of Rijeka, Faculty of Tourism & Hospitality Management.

Fleckenstein, M., and P. Huebsch 1999 Ethics in Tourism-Reality or Hallucination. Journal of Business Research 19:137–142.

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Goodwin, H., 2001. Responsible tourism and the market. International Centre for Responsible Tourism

Holden, A., 2003. In need of innovative environmental ethics for tourism?. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), pp.94-108.

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Murphy, P.E., 2013. Tourism: A community approach (RLE Tourism). Routledge.

Payne, D., and F. Dimanche 1996 Towards a Code of Conduct for the Tourism Industry: An Ethics Model.Journal of Business Ethics 15:997–1007.

Salazar, N.B., 2012. Community-based cultural tourism: issues, threats, and opportunities. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(1), pp.9-22

Stamboulis, Y. and Skayannis, P., 2003. Innovation strategies and technology for experience-based travel. Tourism Management, 24(1), pp.35-43.

Stynes, D.J., 1997. Economic effects of tourism: a handbook for tourism professionals. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Tourism Research Laboratory, pp.1-32.

Van Breugel, L., 2013. Community-based tourism: Local participation and perceived impacts. Radboud University Nijmegen

Wang, Y. and Davidson, M.C., 2010. A review of micro-analyses of tourist expenditure. Current Issues in Tourism, 13(6), pp.507-524.

Winchenbach, Anke., 2013). Taking Responsibility for Responsible Tourism in Communities – A Local Perspective. King’s College, University of London.

Yaman, H.R., and Gurel, E., 2006. Ethical ideologies of tourism marketers. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(2), pp.470-489.

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