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The Five Factor Theory
In The Five Factor Theory, Costa and McCrae recognized Eysenck’s significance in identifying extraversion and neuroticism as second-order personality characteristics, as well as in establishing the Maudsley Personality Inventory, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire as instruments for assessing these variables (McCrae & Sutin, 2018).They did, however, disagree with Eysenck on psychoticism. Initially, they proposed a separate component known as openness.
When they addressed this with Eysenck, he thought openness was the polar opposite of psychoticism, while McCrae and Costa thought the elements were considerably different. Costa and McCrae have expanded on the third element of openness, adding two new second-order factors: agreeableness and conscientiousness.Costa and McCrae collaborated to create the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) to assess neuroticism, extraversion, and openness, and then the Revised NEO-PI, which additionally assesses agreeableness and conscientiousness (Costa & McCrae, 1988).
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The Five Factor Theory
However, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae’s version is the most well-known today and the one that most psychologists think of when considering the five component model. The abbreviation OCEAN is frequently used to recall Costa and McCrae’s five components, sometimes known as the Big Five personality traits: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Costa & McCrae, 1988).
The trait of openness to experience encompasses an appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unique ideas, curiosity, and a wide range of experiences. The degree of openness indicates a person’s intellectual curiosity, inventiveness, and appreciation for novelty and diversity. It is often referred to as a person’s level of creativity or independence. It denotes a preference for a range of activities over a tight schedule. Those with a high openness to new experiences favor novelty, whereas those with a low openness to new experiences prefer regularity (Boundless, n.d.).
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Conscientiousness is defined as a proclivity for self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, attentiveness, and achievement-seeking. It differs from the moral implications of conscience in that it focuses on the amount of conscious intention and thought a person puts into his or her actions (Boundless, n.d.). Individuals with a high level of conscientiousness prefer planned rather than spontaneous conduct and are frequently structured, industrious, and trustworthy.
Individuals with low conscientiousness have a more relaxed attitude, are more impulsive, and may be chaotic. Numerous studies have discovered a link between conscientiousness and academic achievement (Boundless, n.d.).
Extraversion is characterized by strong energy, pleasant emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness, friendliness, and a proclivity to seek stimulation in the presence of others (Boundless, n.d.). Low extraverts prefer alone and/or smaller groups, appreciate silence, prefer activities alone, and avoid large social situations. Because of their inquisitive and thrill-seeking character, persons who score high on both extraversion and openness are more inclined to participate in adventure and hazardous sports (Boundless, n.d.).
Agreeableness assesses a person’s proclivity to be sympathetic and helpful toward others rather than distrustful and hostile. It is also a measure of a person’s trustworthiness and helpfulness, as well as whether or not that person is typically good-tempered. People with low levels of agreeableness are often regarded as unpleasant and uncooperative (Boundless, n.d.).
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High neuroticism is defined by a proclivity to feel negative emotions such as wrath, anxiety, despair, or vulnerability (Boundless, n.d.). Neuroticism also refers to a person’s emotional stability and impulsive control. People with high neuroticism tend to be emotionally unstable and are described as furious, impetuous, and hostile.
They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult (Boundless, n.d.). Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic’s ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.
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Critics of the trait method say that the patterns of variability across diverse contexts are key to determining personality, and that averaging across such scenarios to find an overarching characteristic obscures important distinction between individuals (McCrae & Sutin, 2018). Critics of the Five-Factor Model, in particular, contend that it has limits as an explanatory or predictive theory and does not explain all aspects of human nature.
Some psychologists disagree with the concept because they believe it ignores other aspects of personality such as religiosity, manipulativeness, honesty, seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness, femininity, egotism, sense of humor, and risk-taking (McCrae & Sutin, 2018). Another common critique is that the Five-Factor Model is not founded on any underlying theory; rather, it is an empirical observation that various descriptors cluster together when factor analysis is performed. This indicates that, while these five characteristics exist, the underlying reasons are unclear.
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The Five Factor Theory
Trait theorists have consistently demonstrated that characteristics are extremely resistant to change once they reach maturity (Costa & McCrae, 1988). This is especially true for Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness, as well as for men and women, as well as for Blacks and Whites (Costa & McCrae, 1988). While Costa and McCrae recognize that people can alter drastically, consistency is definitely more essential as a general rule.
They also argue that this would be a time to be optimistic. Individuals should not be afraid of changing as they mature. If, on the other hand, a person of a younger age is lonely, sad, or suffers from another psychological ailment, they should be aware that time alone is unlikely to alter them, and that psychotherapy may be a more desired and successful course of action (Costa & McCrae, 1988).
The Five Factor Theory
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Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1988). From catalog to classification: Murray’s needs and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 258–265.
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY is a relationship-based theory of leadership. LMX theory rests firmly on the assumption that leaders influence employees in their group through the quality of the relationships they develop with them (Juneja, 2015). One of the early findings of the LMX theory is that, leaders develop relationships of varying quality with their subordinates and such differentiation characterizes a wide majority of the work groups studied.
A high quality relationship is characterized by trust, liking, professional respect, and loyalty. They are characterized by the exchange of valued resources. In these relationships, leaders provide support, developmental opportunities, men- toring, and other benefits to the employee.
The provision of such resources results in a motivation to reciprocate to the leader on the part of members, by demonstrating behaviors such as loyalty and higher levels of voluntary behaviors. In other words, the relationship between high LMX quality and promanagerial and occasionally proorganiza- tional behaviors is frequently believed to be a sense of responsibility and high levels of devotion to the supervisor. Furthermore, there is a relationship between LMX quality and outcomes and the degree to which employees believe their leader’s promises will be kept (Hao, et al., 2019).
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
The theory states that all relationships between managers and subordinates go through three stages. These are Role-Taking, Role-Making and Routinization (Mindtools, n.d.). When team members initially join the group, they take on roles. Managers utilize this period to examine the talents and competencies of new employees. When new team members begin working on projects and responsibilities as part of the team, role-making happens.
As new team members adjust to their new roles, supervisors often want them to work hard, be loyal, and demonstrate trustworthiness (Mindtools, n.d.). According to the idea, managers classify new team members into one of two categories, in-group or out-group, during this period. If team members demonstrate loyalty, trustworthiness, and skill, they are placed in the In-Group (Mindtools, n.d.).
This group consists of the team members in whom the management has the most faith. In addition, this group receives additional one-on-one time with the manager. People in this category frequently share their manager’s attitude and work ethic. If team members break the manager’s trust or demonstrate that they are uninspired or inept, they are placed in the Out-Group (Gregersen, et al., 2016).
The work of this group is frequently limited and unchallenging. Out-group members have less access to the management and are less likely to be given opportunities for promotion. Routines between team members and their supervisors are created during the Routinization phase (Mindtools, n.d.). In-Group team members strive hard to keep their bosses’ goodwill by demonstrating trust, respect, empathy, patience, and perseverance. Members of the out-group may begin to resent or distrust their bosses (Mindtools, n.d.).
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
One of two metrics is used in most empirical studies on LMX theory. The LMX-7 is a single-dimensional scale with seven components (Martin, et al., 2017). The LMX-Multidimensional is made up of 12 components namely affect, loyalty, contribution, and professional respect, each of which captures three dimensions. Many researchers prefer to collapse the dimensions since the multidimensional measure is made up of highly linked dimensions that lie under a second-order component.
Another prevalent trend in LMX research is to assess LMX quality via the eyes of the employee. Correlations are usually minimal when LMX is measured from the perspective of members and leaders. Furthermore, during the early phases of a relationship’s growth, the correlation is less, and the overlap grows as time passes the lack of agreement could be explained by a number of different mechanisms (Gooty & Yammarino, 2016).
When employees and managers are asked how much they like, respect, and feel loyal to one other, it’s only natural that their responses differ. Second, in their relationship, each individual may have varying degrees of success in satisfying the expectations of the other. Third, due to social desirability concerns, leaders may be less inclined to disclose a poor-quality conversation with a team member. Finally, some of the poor correlations reported might be due to the measuring method (Gooty & Yammarino, 2016).
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Member performance and competence appear to be important predictors in the LMX development process as these are helpful behaviors in establishing trustworthiness (Erdogan & Bauer, 2015). When the relationship begins, trust develops as a result of a mutual testing process. Employee’s satisfactory responses to the testing efforts of leaders result in the development of trust on the part of the leader.
In addition to member performance and similarity to leaders, member personality has been frequently examined as a predictor in cross-sectional work (Erdogan & Bauer, 2015). Meta-analytic results revealed that following member competence and perceived similarity, member positive affec- tivity and the locus of control are the characteristics with the strongest correlations to LMX quality (Martin, et al., 2015).
Furthermore, goal orientation has been explored as an antecedent. Mastery orientation, which refers to the degree to which a person is interested in acquiring new skills, improving and learning, has been shown to be positively related to LMX quality, whereas performance orientation, which refers to the degree to which the person is preoccupied with looking like a high performer and being evaluated well, has been negatively related (Martin, et al., 2015).
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
The way that leaders develop different quality relationships with members of their team has been referred to as the LMX differentiation process (Anand, et al., 2015). LMX differentiation is defined as a process by which a leader, through engaging in differing types of exchange patterns with subordinates, forms different quality exchange relationships with them. LMX differentiation does not refer to the mean LMX quality in the team, but to the extent that there are differences in LMX quality within the team (Anand, et al., 2015).
Although LMX differentiation refers to the process by which leaders develop different quality relationships with each team member, the results of that process will be differentiation patterns of LMX quality between team members. Three main properties of the differentiation process pattern that can be identified and assessed include central tendency, variation, and relative position (Cobb & Lau, 2015).
The first property of the differentiation process concerns the within‐team central tendency, which is normally assessed as the team mean or median score. Although most research has examined the mean, some argue that the median is a better indicator of aggregation because it represents the middle person in the team while the mean might not correspond to any team member (Cobb & Lau, 2015).
There are two dimensions to LMX variation: dispersion which is the amount of spread of LMX between team members and distribution shape, the pattern of LMX within the team. The third property of the LMX differentiation process refers to the within‐team relative position or location of each team member’s LMX quality with respect to other members of the team who are managed by the same leader. It the relative standing of a team member’s LMX compared to other team members (Cobb & Lau, 2015).
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It is important to note that the presence of LMX differentiation increases the salience of fairness concerns. Studies on LMX differentiation highlight the importance of employee awareness of how LMXs are distributed within the group. Employees react not only to their own relationship quality, but also to their coworkers’ relationship quality, and distribution of LMXs matter.
Taking this idea a step further, scholars also started investigating social comparison processes directly, by introducing the concept of relative LMX. Relative LMX is a statistical computation of the degree to which a person’s LMX quality is higher or lower than the team’s LMX average. Utilizing a social comparison approach, scholars argued that having a higher-quality exchange compared to one’s team members is a source of satisfaction.
Controlling for one’s LMX quality, relative LMX is positively related to self- efficacy, performance, citizenship behaviors, and psychological contract fulfillment. In addition to examining relative LMX operationalized as the difference between focal person’s LMX score from the group mean, researchers developed a perceptual measure of relative LMX, directly asking individuals to compare their own rela- tionship quality to the other relations the leader develops with team members.
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
Investigations of the nomological network of LMX quality are numerous and this is a mature field of investigation. Yet, there are still research avenues that are important to investigate. One issue is the evolving nature of organizations. LMX theory originated in the 1970s, at a time organizations were charac- terized by tall hierarchies, unity of command, and authority concentrated more at the top (Chen, et al., 2018).
Today, while such organizations continue to exist, there are more novel and contemporary structures under which managers and employees develop relationships. For example, in many contemporary organiza- tions, employees may report to more than one manager, whereas LMX theory is based on the assumption that each member has one, clearly identifiable manager who controls resources valued by the member (Chen, et al., 2018).
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Recent research (Vidyarthi, et al., 2018) has examined LMX relationships in such a context and showed that in a sample of information technology consultants reporting to two managers, convergence of the quality of these relationships was associated with more positive outcomes. The authors con- tended that each LMX relationship would serve as a compar- ison point for the other relationship, evoking social comparison processes.
In other words, similar to the comparisons employees engage in with their coworkers’ LMXs, it seems that they also compare the multiple exchanges they have with different leaders in their work lives (Vidyarthi, et al., 2018). Such findings indicate that LMX theory would benefit from an extension and testing of the theory in settings that are different from the traditional orga- nizational forms.
As organizations introduce matrix structures where members report to multiple leaders for finite periods of time, or when they eliminate managers by introducing lattice organizations where there are no assigned leaders, the utility of the theory remains unclear. Extension of LMX theory to contemporary organizational structures is an important future direction.
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A second research direction relates to an examination of LMX quality in relation to coworker relationships (Wang, et al., 2018). We know that LMX quality is associated with positive job attitudes and behaviors. However, we know significantly less about when and why coworkers experience envy or jealousy, or feel nega- tively toward high LMX members. (Tse, et al., 2018) showed that the degree to which LMX quality is positively associated with one aspect of coworker relations is contingent on the degree to which high LMX members also demonstrate help- fulness and discretion.
Systematic investigation of the effects of LMX quality on coworker emotions, behaviors, and reactions to the focal person is a noteworthy area of research. The importance of this topic is also evidenced by the fact that the most recent meta-analysis in LMX theory (Martin, et al., 2016) includes relationships of LMX to a large number of outcomes, but any indicators of coworker relationships is curiously missing, which likely indicates the small number of studies examining LMX quality in relation to coworker relations.
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LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
In conclusion, while research on LMX has entered a mature phase where much is known about its measurement, anteced- ents, boundary conditions, and consequences, much also remains left to uncover. These include future understanding of how LMX relationships develop and the boundary conditions for relationship devel- opment, how LMX is measured, how relative LMX affects what we know, as well as the key future research themes of the changing nature of work in terms of content and organizational structures, the influence of the social network of relationships, as well as the dark side of LMX. Given these and other potential research questions, we are excited about the future of LMX as a vibrant research area.
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
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References
Anand, S., Vidyarthi, P. R. & Park, H. P., 2015. LMX Differentiation: Understanding relational leadership at individual and group levels.. new york: Oxford University Press.
Cobb, A. T. & Lau, R. S., 2015. In: Trouble at the next level: Effects of differential leader–member exchange on group-level processes and justice climate. s.l.:s.n., p. 1437
Chen, X. P., He, W. & Weng, L. C., 2018. What is wrong with treating followers differently? The basis of leader–member exchange differentiation matters. Journal of Management, Issue 44, pp. 946-971..1459.
Erdogan, B. & Bauer, a. N., 2015. The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange. New york: Oxford University press.
Hao, Q., Shi, Y. & Yang, W., 2019. How leader-member exchange affects knowledge sharing behavior: understanding the effects of commitment and employee characteristics.
Gregersen, S., Vincent-Höper, S. & Nienhaus, A., 2016. Job-related resources, leader–member exchange and well-being: a longitudinal study.. Work Stress, Issue 30, p. 356–373.
Gooty, J. & Yammarino, F. J., 2016. The leader–member exchange relationship: a multisource, cross-level investigation. J. Manage, Issue 42, p. 915–935.
Tse, H. H. M., Troth, A. C., Ashkanasy, N. M. & Collins, A. L., 2018. Affect and leader-member exchange in the new millennium: a state-of-art review and guiding framework.. p. 135–149.
Vidyarthi, P., Rolnicki, S. & Anand, S., 2018. Leader-member exchange and organizational citizenship behaviors: contextual effects of leader power distance and group task interdependence.. p. 489–500.
Wang, D., Gan, C. & Wu, C., 2018. LMX and employee voice: a moderated mediation model of psychological empowerment and role clarity.. p. 605–615.
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Kohlberg moral development stages
Explain how the concept of justice relates to the field of criminal justice, emphasizing how it should be applied by law enforcement officers. Explain three (3) ways Kohlberg Moral Development stages can be applied to the evaluation of three (3) types of criminals who are at different stages of moral development. Recommend three (3) effective and ethical methods of deterrence for the selected criminals.
(One (1) method for each criminal.) Recommend ways to use ethics to improve decision making in the criminal justice system. Explain why and how the concept of justice is important to the field of criminal justice. Explain Kohlberg’s moral development stages and how they can be applied to issues in criminal justice. Use technology and information resources to research issues in ethics and leadership in criminal justice. Write clearly and concisely about ethics and leadership in criminal justice using proper writing mechanics.The concept of Justice
Definition.
Justice can be defined as a system of laws in a society that bestows every individual his or her natural and legal rights. It encompasses both the concept of equality where everyone is equal before the law and also the concept of equity where one is rewarded on the basis of his efforts.
Kohlberg moral development stages
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Relation between justice and criminal justice.
Justice brings about rule of law in the society (Colleen, 2008). The law enforcement officers are allowed to investigate a suspect of wrongdoing and then make an arrest. These officers are allowed to use force in effecting public and social order and if a suspect is dangerous they are allowed to use legal means of coercion to arrest him. This means a suspect can be denied some of his rights in an effort to protect the whole society. The police are empowered to enforce all aspects of criminal law on the basis of their mission and jurisdiction.
Evaluation of three types of criminals using Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
The pre-social criminal easily gives in to his mind’s strong impulses to commit an act. The criminal is in the pre conventional stage of development and is not bothered by the consequences of his actions (Cherry, 2002). This behavior is most prevalent in children who have not yet internalized the requirements and moral standards that one is supposed to uphold in society.
The anti social criminal acts in pursuit of what is in his best interest. The criminal is in the conventional stage of moral development and knows very well that his actions are in contravention to society morals and norms. The criminal has a harsh super ego to attain his intentions regardless of the consequences.
The asocial criminal is not loyal to any ideals of the society. He is in the post conventional stage of moral development and considers that individuals are separate entities from the society. Their own perspective must take precedence over the society’s perspectives.
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Deterrence methods for the three types of criminals.
The pre- social criminal should be empowered through training so as he can access his needs through legal means. The societal norms and practices should be inculcated in him through advice and follow up.
The anti social criminal should be deterred through environmental designs that predispose all violent acts. Such measures include installation of surveillance devices and territorial reinforcements.
The asocial criminal can be deterred through being disciplined through the criminal laws that are applicable in a society. This is mainly through sentences in courts of law.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development help the criminal justice system identify the intention behind the commitment of various types of crimes (Baker, 2011). There are those who commit crime out of necessity as portrayed in the Heinz dilemma. There are others who commit crimes to satisfy their ego and are not aware of the underlying consequences. This is mainly prevalent in juvenile crimes that are committed by children.
They do not know fully what is expected of them by the society. There are others who commit crimes because they take it as their right. They do not mind what the society will think of them. They commit crimes to satisfy their satiable thirst to achieve their goals. Such crimes are mainly committed by mass murderers who are only out to achieve their wishes no matter how heinous.
